{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,19]],"date-time":"2026-07-19T08:02:52Z","timestamp":1784448172077,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,25]],"date-time":"2025-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737763200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,25]],"date-time":"2025-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737763200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Health Serv Res"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>HIV self-sampling and -testing (HIVSS\/ST) reduces testing barriers and potentially reaches populations who may not test otherwise. In the Netherlands, at-home HIV tests became commercially available around 2016, but data on user experiences are limited. This study aimed to explore characteristics of users and their experiences with HIVSS\/ST. In 2022 and 2023, a survey was distributed among users of one online commercial provider and one community-based provider; either users ordered a commercial online HIVSS\/ST or they sought a free-of-charge HIVST via the community-based provider. Questions included usability, preferences, and barriers of HIVSS\/ST-testing. We compared characteristics and experiences of users between providers, risk groups and first-time and repeat testers. In total, 133 users completed the survey; 89 (67%) via the commercial provider and 44 (33%) via the community-based provider. Response rates per provider were 2% and 26%, respectively. Users who bought their test at the commercial provider were more often Gay and Bisexual Men (GBM) (42%), 35\u2009+\u2009years (43%), and born in the Netherlands (89%), compared to those recruited through the community-provider (respectively 27%, 25%, 14%). GBM were more often repeat and recent HIVSS\/ST-testers, and using pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Women and heterosexual men were more likely to buy an HIVSS\/ST as part of a combination Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) test package. Overall, main reasons for choosing HIVSS\/ST were saving time (42%), anonymity (36%) and not having to talk to a GP (35%). Twenty-two percent of the study participants experienced some problems performing the HIVSS\/ST, the most reported problem was obtaining sufficient blood through the finger prick (71%). Recommendations to improve accessibility of HIVSS\/ST included more awareness (advertising by trustful providers), more access locations (pharmacies\/supermarkets\/schools) and lower costs. Our findings indicate that HIVSS\/ST is a valuable additional HIV testing method for users, but more insight into the contribution of HIVSS\/ST to HIV prevention policies is needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-025-12252-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,25]],"date-time":"2025-01-25T04:05:56Z","timestamp":1737777956000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Self-sampling and self-testing for HIV at a commercial and community-based test provider in the Netherlands: user preferences and usability"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5338-8796","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"I. J. M.","family":"Willemstein","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3371-4515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"O.","family":"Shobowale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9658-8918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A. M.","family":"\u017bakowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H.","family":"Bos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8263-9187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"E. L. M.","family":"Op de Coul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"12252_CR1","unstructured":"UNAIDS. Political declaration on HIV and AIDS: ending inequalities and getting on track to end AIDS by 2030. 2021. https:\/\/www.unaids.org\/sites\/default\/files\/media_asset\/2021_political-declaration-on-hiv-and-aids_en.pdf. Accessed Oct 2023."},{"key":"12252_CR2","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Guidelines on HIV self-testing and partner notification. 2016. https:\/\/iris.who.int\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/251655\/9789241549868-eng.pdf. Accessed Oct 2023."},{"issue":"2","key":"12252_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2016-052841","volume":"93","author":"EM Harding-Esch","year":"2017","unstructured":"Harding-Esch EM, Hollis E, Mohammed H, Saunders JM. Self-sampling and self-testing for STIs and HIV: the case for consistent nomenclature. Sex Transm Infect. 2017;93(2):445\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/sextrans-2016-052841.","journal-title":"Sex Transm Infect"},{"issue":"2","key":"12252_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-017-1707-8","volume":"22","author":"DR Stevens","year":"2018","unstructured":"Stevens DR, Vrana CJ, Dlin RE, Korte JE. A Global Review of HIV Self-testing: Themes and Implications. AIDS Behav. 2018;22(2):497\u2013512. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10461-017-1707-8.","journal-title":"AIDS Behav"},{"key":"12252_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.101059","volume":"39","author":"M McGuire","year":"2021","unstructured":"McGuire M, de Waal A, Karellis A, et al. HIV self-testing with digital supports as the new paradigm: A systematic review of global evidence (2010\u20132021). EClinicalMedicine. 2021;39: 101059. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.101059.","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"issue":"2","key":"12252_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2017-053325","volume":"95","author":"M Gilbert","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gilbert M, Thomson K, Salway T, et al. Differences in experiences of barriers to STI testing between clients of the internet-based diagnostic testing service GetCheckedOnline.com and an STI clinic in Vancouver, Canada. Sex Transm Infect. 2019;95(2):151\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/sextrans-2017-053325.","journal-title":"Sex Transm Infect."},{"key":"12252_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kayaert L, Sarink D, Visser M, et al. Sexually transmitted infections in the Netherlands in 2023. RIVM, 2023. https:\/\/www.rivm.nl\/bibliotheek\/rapporten\/2024-0038.pdf. Accessed Jul 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21945\/RIVM-2024-0038.","DOI":"10.21945\/RIVM-2024-0038"},{"issue":"1","key":"12252_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s12981-023-00529-9","volume":"20","author":"C Kandil","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kandil C, Hugtenburg J, Heijman T, et al. Availability and accessibility of HIV self-tests and self-sample kits at community pharmacies in the Netherlands. AIDS Res Ther. 2023;20(1):39. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12981-023-00529-9.","journal-title":"AIDS Res Ther"},{"key":"12252_CR9","unstructured":"RIVM. \"Evaluatie van het aanbod van online-aanbieders van soa-zelftesten in Nederland\". 2016. https:\/\/www.rivm.nl\/bibliotheek\/rapporten\/2016-0143.pdf. Accessed Oct 2023."},{"key":"12252_CR10","unstructured":"Soa Aids Nederland. \"De hiv-zelftest\". 2023. https:\/\/www.soaaids.nl\/nl\/alle-soas\/hiv\/hiv-zelftest. Accessed Oct 2023."},{"key":"12252_CR11","unstructured":"AIDS Healthcare Foundation. 2023. https:\/\/gratishivtest.nl\/en\/. Accessed Oct 2023."},{"key":"12252_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"967770","DOI":"10.3389\/frph.2022.967770","volume":"4","author":"CJD Goense","year":"2022","unstructured":"Goense CJD, Evers YJ, Hoebe C, et al. Intention to use and acceptability of home-based sexual health care among men who have sex with men who previously attended clinic-based sexual health care. Front Reprod Health. 2022;4:967770. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frph.2022.967770.","journal-title":"Front Reprod Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"12252_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2018-053583","volume":"95","author":"JP Bil","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bil JP, Prins M, Fakoya I, et al. Usage of purchased self-tests for HIV infections among migrants living in the UK, France and the Netherlands: a cross-sectional study. Sex Transm Infect. 2019;95(8):629\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/sextrans-2018-053583.","journal-title":"Sex Transm Infect"},{"issue":"1","key":"12252_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1080\/09540121.2019.1653440","volume":"32","author":"C den Daas","year":"2020","unstructured":"den Daas C, Geerken MBR, Bal M, et al. Reducing health disparities: key factors for successful implementation of social network testing with HIV self-tests among men who have sex with men with a non-western migration background in the Netherlands. AIDS Care. 2020;32(1):50\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09540121.2019.1653440.","journal-title":"AIDS Care"},{"key":"12252_CR15","unstructured":"Van Aar F, David S, van Benthem B, et al. \"Update nationaal actieplan soa, hiv en seksuele gezondheid\". RIVM, 2022. https:\/\/rutgers.nl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/update-NAP-hiv-en-seksuele-gezondheid-2023-2027.pdf. Accessed Jan 2025."},{"key":"12252_CR16","unstructured":"Simplitude ByMe. https:\/\/simplitudebyme.com\/. Accessed Feb 2024."},{"key":"12252_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Op de Coul E, den Daas C, Spijker R, et al. Web-Supported Social Network Testing for HIV Among Men Who Have Sex With Men With a Migration Background: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Pilot Study. JMIR Res Protoc. 2020;9(2):e14743. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/14743.","DOI":"10.2196\/14743"},{"key":"12252_CR18","unstructured":"Giannini EH. Design, measurement, and analysis of clinical investigations. In: Textbook of Pediatric Rheumatology. 2005. https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/medicine-and-dentistry\/yates-continuity-correction#:~:text=Chi%2Dsquare%20analysis%20with%20greater,tables%20is%20less%20than%2040. Accessed Dec 2023."},{"key":"12252_CR19","unstructured":"Van Sighem A, Wit F, Boyd A, et al. HIV Monitoring Report 2023. Stichting hiv monitoring, 2023. https:\/\/www.hiv-monitoring.nl\/application\/files\/1417\/0229\/8520\/SHM_HIV_MONITORING_REPORT_NL_2023.pdf. Accessed Feb 2024."},{"issue":"3","key":"12252_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1111\/hiv.12818","volume":"21","author":"TC Witzel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Witzel TC, Bourne A, Burns FM, et al. HIV self-testing intervention experiences and kit usability: results from a qualitative study among men who have sex with men in the SELPHI (Self-Testing Public Health Intervention) randomized controlled trial in England and Wales. HIV Med. 2020;21(3):189\u201397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/hiv.12818.","journal-title":"HIV Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"12252_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-019-4247-1","volume":"19","author":"TC Witzel","year":"2019","unstructured":"Witzel TC, Gabriel MM, McCabe L, et al. Pilot phase of an internet-based RCT of HIVST targeting MSM and transgender people in England and Wales: advertising strategies and acceptability of the intervention. BMC Infect Dis. 2019;19(1):699. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12879-019-4247-1.","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"issue":"9","key":"12252_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162713","volume":"11","author":"TC Witzel","year":"2016","unstructured":"Witzel TC, Rodger AJ, Burns FM, et al. HIV Self-Testing among Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) in the UK: A Qualitative Study of Barriers and Facilitators, Intervention Preferences and Perceived Impacts. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(9): e0162713. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0162713.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"Suppl 2","key":"12252_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-06442-8","volume":"21","author":"SG Nash","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nash SG, Maffeo M, Likatavicius G, et al. Acceptability and usability of HIV self-tests in two European countries: findings from surveys of clients at non-governmental organisations in Lithuania and Italy. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(Suppl 2):844. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12879-021-06442-8.","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"issue":"12","key":"12252_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1177\/0956462419868882","volume":"30","author":"P Baraitser","year":"2019","unstructured":"Baraitser P, Black A, Amos-Gibbs S, et al. User preference for HIV self-testing or self-sampling within a free online sexual health service: a service evaluation. Int J STD AIDS. 2019;30(12):1239\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0956462419868882.","journal-title":"Int J STD AIDS"},{"issue":"1","key":"12252_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-020-01835-z","volume":"18","author":"TC Witzel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Witzel TC, Eshun-Wilson I, Jamil MS, et al. Comparing the effects of HIV self-testing to standard HIV testing for key populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med. 2020;18(1):381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12916-020-01835-z.","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"issue":"Suppl 4","key":"12252_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S422","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-014-0818-8","volume":"18","author":"RB Peck","year":"2014","unstructured":"Peck RB, Lim JM, van Rooyen H, et al. What should the ideal HIV self-test look like? A usability study of test prototypes in unsupervised HIV self-testing in Kenya, Malawi, and South Africa. AIDS Behav. 2014;18(Suppl 4):S422\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10461-014-0818-8.","journal-title":"AIDS Behav"},{"key":"12252_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kayaert L, Sarink D, Visser M, et al. Sexually transmitted infections in the Netherlands in 2022. RIVM, 2023. https:\/\/www.rivm.nl\/bibliotheek\/rapporten\/2023-0161.pdf. Accessed Dec 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21945\/RIVM-2023-0161.","DOI":"10.21945\/RIVM-2023-0161"},{"issue":"5","key":"12252_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2017-053302","volume":"94","author":"S Barnard","year":"2018","unstructured":"Barnard S, Free C, Bakolis I, et al. Comparing the characteristics of users of an online service for STI self-sampling with clinic service users: A cross-sectional analysis. Sex Transm Infect. 2018;94(5):377\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/sextrans-2017-053302.","journal-title":"Sex Transm Infect"},{"issue":"9","key":"12252_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-016609","volume":"7","author":"JP Bil","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bil JP, Prins M, Stolte IG, et al. Usage of purchased self-tests for HIV and sexually transmitted infections in Amsterdam, the Netherlands: results of population-based and serial cross-sectional studies among the general population and sexual risk groups. BMJ Open. 2017;7(9): e016609. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-016609.","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"12252_CR30","unstructured":"AIDS Healthcare Foundation. 2024. https:\/\/aidshealth.org\/global\/netherlands\/. Accessed Feb 2024."},{"issue":"1","key":"12252_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21290","DOI":"10.7448\/ias.20.1.21290","volume":"20","author":"A Nunn","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nunn A, Brinkley-Rubinstein L, Rose J, et al. Latent class analysis of acceptability and willingness to pay for self-HIV testing in a United States urban neighbourhood with high rates of HIV infection. J Int AIDS Soc. 2017;20(1):21290. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7448\/ias.20.1.21290.","journal-title":"J Int AIDS Soc"},{"issue":"2","key":"12252_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-019-02484-x","volume":"24","author":"V Bj\u00f8rnshagen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bj\u00f8rnshagen V, Moseng BU, Ugreninov E. Who Do You Reach? A Norwegian Pilot Project on HIV Self-Testing that Targeted Men Who Have Sex with Men. AIDS Behav. 2020;24(2):568\u201379. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10461-019-02484-x.","journal-title":"AIDS Behav"},{"key":"12252_CR33","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Consolidated guidelines on HIV testing services. 2019. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/978-92-4-155058-1. Accessed Jan 2024."}],"container-title":["BMC Health Services Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12913-025-12252-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12913-025-12252-4\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12913-025-12252-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,25]],"date-time":"2025-01-25T04:06:07Z","timestamp":1737777967000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmchealthservres.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12913-025-12252-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,25]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["12252"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12913-025-12252-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["1472-6963"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1472-6963","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"21 May 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 January 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 January 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"141"}}