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Our previous studies suggested that in zebrafish and iguana pineal-related organs, a single photoreceptor cell expressing both UV-sensitive parapinopsin and green-sensitive parietopsin generates color opponency\u00a0in a \u201cone-cell system.\u201d However, it remains unknown to what degree these\u00a0opsins and the single cell-based mechanism in the pineal color opponency are conserved throughout non-mammalian vertebrates.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>We found that in the lamprey pineal organ, the two opsins are conserved but that, in contrast to the situation in other vertebrate pineal-related organs, they are\u00a0expressed in separate photoreceptor cells. Intracellular electrophysiological recordings demonstrated that the parietopsin-expressing photoreceptor cells with Go-type G protein evoke a depolarizing response to visible light. Additionally, spectroscopic analyses revealed that parietopsin with 11<jats:italic>-cis<\/jats:italic> 3-dehydroretinal has an absorption maximum at ~570 nm, which is in approximate agreement with the wavelength (~560 nm) that produces the maximum rate of neural firing in pineal ganglion cells exposed to visible light. The vesicular glutamate transporter is localized at both the parietopsin- and parapinopsin-expressing photoreceptor terminals, suggesting that both types of photoreceptor cells use glutamate as a transmitter. Retrograde tracing of the pineal ganglion cells revealed that the terminal of the parietopsin-expressing cells is located close enough to form a neural connection with the ganglion cells, which is similar to our previous observation for the parapinopsin-expressing photoreceptor cells and the ganglion cells. In sum, our observations point to a \u201ctwo-cell system\u201d in which parietopsin and parapinopsin,\u00a0expressed separately in two different types of photoreceptor cells,\u00a0 contribute to the generation of color opponency in the pineal ganglion cells. <\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Our results indicate that the jawless vertebrate, lamprey, employs a system for color opponency that differes\u00a0from that described previously in jawed vertebrates. From a physiological viewpoint, we propose an evolutionary insight, the emergence of pineal \u201cone-cell system\u201d from the ancestral \u201cmultiple (two)-cell system,\u201d showing the opposite evolutionary direction to that of the ocular color opponency.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12915-021-01121-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]],"date-time":"2021-09-15T23:05:35Z","timestamp":1631747135000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Insights into the evolutionary origin of the pineal color discrimination mechanism from the river lamprey"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Seiji","family":"Wada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emi","family":"Kawano-Yamashita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tomohiro","family":"Sugihara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Satoshi","family":"Tamotsu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mitsumasa","family":"Koyanagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8379-8913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akihisa","family":"Terakita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,16]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"1121_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.201300034","volume":"35","author":"AM Fernandes","year":"2013","unstructured":"Fernandes AM, Fero K, Driever W, Burgess HA. 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