{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T02:54:15Z","timestamp":1793328855387,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763078400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763078400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"\u00c5ke Wiberg Stiftelsen","award":["M23-01339"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["M23-01339"]}]},{"name":"The Swedish Heart-lung foundation","award":["HLF20210053"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HLF20210053"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001862","name":"The Swedish Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2021-06546"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021-06546"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001862","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Region Stockholm","award":["FoUI-97300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FoUI-97300"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004047","name":"Karolinska Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004047","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Med"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection, or long COVID, include diverse symptoms and remain a major concern worldwide. This study investigates the occurrence of depression, anxiety, fatigue, and headache 1\u00a0year prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (2019), 12\u00a0months prior to, and 6\u00a0months after long COVID diagnosis in individuals diagnosed with long COVID and matched population-based controls.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This case\u2013control study included nonhospitalized individuals diagnosed with long COVID compared with controls without long COVID, matched by age, sex, and neighborhood socioeconomic status. Data were collected from the Stockholm Regional Health Care Data Warehouse (VAL), including diagnoses in 2019, 12\u00a0months before, and 6\u00a0months after the long COVID diagnosis. Conditional logistic regression was used to calculate odds (OR) ratios and 99% confidence intervals (CI).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 5589 cases (mean age: 47\u00a0years, 69% female) and 47,561 controls were included. Individuals with long COVID had a higher pre-pandemic frequency of the following diagnoses: depression (women:\n                      <jats:italic>OR<\/jats:italic>\n                      1.57 (1.26\u20131.97), men:\n                      <jats:italic>OR<\/jats:italic>\n                      1.40 (0.88\u20132.23)), anxiety (women:\n                      <jats:italic>OR<\/jats:italic>\n                      1.65 (1.41\u20131.93), men:\n                      <jats:italic>OR<\/jats:italic>\n                      2.10 (1.56\u20132.84)), fatigue syndrome after viral infection (women:\n                      <jats:italic>OR<\/jats:italic>\n                      1.96 (0.86\u20134.48), men:\n                      <jats:italic>OR<\/jats:italic>\n                      2.22 (0.29\u201317)), and headache (women:\n                      <jats:italic>OR<\/jats:italic>\n                      2.45 (1.96\u20133.05), men:\n                      <jats:italic>OR<\/jats:italic>\n                      2.89 (1.86\u20134.50)). Individuals with long COVID also had a higher frequency of these diagnoses 12\u00a0months before and 6\u00a0months after the long COVID diagnosis was made, regardless of sex.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Individuals with long COVID had a higher prevalence of depression, anxiety, fatigue, and headache both before and after being diagnosed with long COVID compared with controls without long COVID. The findings suggest an association between mental health vulnerabilities and long COVID, while the frequency of registered mental health diagnoses remained largely similar after the long COVID diagnosis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-025-04498-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T17:22:44Z","timestamp":1763140964000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Prevalence of depression, anxiety, fatigue, and headache before and after long COVID onset: a case\u2013control study in the total population of Region Stockholm"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Sebastian","family":"Lindblom","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pia","family":"Lindberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gunnar","family":"Ljunggren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seika","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marta A.","family":"Kisiel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iryna","family":"Kolosenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Predrag","family":"Petrovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Myrto","family":"Sklivanioti Greenfield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Wachtler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Artur","family":"Fedorowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u00c5sa M.","family":"Wheelock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Axel C.","family":"Carlsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"4498_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1152\/physiolgenomics.00089.2020","volume":"52","author":"CA Pollard","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pollard CA, Morran MP, Nestor-Kalinoski AL. The COVID-19 pandemic: a global health crisis. Physiol Genomics. 2020;52:549\u201357.","journal-title":"Physiol Genomics"},{"key":"4498_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01283-z","volume":"27","author":"A Nalbandian","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nalbandian A, Sehgal K, Gupta A, et al. Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome. Nat Med. 2021;27:601\u201315.","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"4498_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcdd8110156","author":"G Bisaccia","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bisaccia G, Ricci F, Recce V, et al. Post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 and cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction: what do we know? J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2021. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcdd8110156.","journal-title":"J Cardiovasc Dev Dis"},{"key":"4498_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/23120541.00542-2020","author":"YMJ Go\u00ebrtz","year":"2020","unstructured":"Go\u00ebrtz YMJ, Van Herck M, Delbressine JM, et al. Persistent symptoms 3 months after a SARS-CoV-2 infection: the post-COVID-19 syndrome? ERJ Open Res. 2020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1183\/23120541.00542-2020.","journal-title":"ERJ Open Res"},{"key":"4498_CR5","unstructured":"National Institute for Health and Care Excellence: clinical guidelines. COVID-19 rapid guideline: managing the long-term effects of COVID-19. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Copyright \u00a9 NICE 2020. 2020."},{"key":"4498_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e102","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00703-9","volume":"22","author":"JB Soriano","year":"2022","unstructured":"Soriano JB, Murthy S, Marshall JC, et al. A clinical case definition of post-COVID-19 condition by a Delphi consensus. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22:e102\u20137.","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"4498_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-95565-8","volume":"11","author":"S Lopez-Leon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lopez-Leon S, Wegman-Ostrosky T, Perelman C, et al. More than 50 long-term effects of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2021;11:16144.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"4498_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sch\u00e4fer IC, Krehbiel J, Adler W, et al. Three-month follow-up of the post-COVID syndrome after admission to a specialised post-COVID centre-a prospective study focusing on mental health with patient reported outcome measures (PROMs). Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2024;21(8):1076.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21081076"},{"key":"4498_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s41687-023-00572-0","volume":"7","author":"CR Tak","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tak CR. The health impact of long COVID: a cross-sectional examination of health-related quality of life, disability, and health status among individuals with self-reported post-acute sequelae of SARS CoV-2 infection at various points of recovery. J Patient Rep Outcomes. 2023;7:31.","journal-title":"J Patient Rep Outcomes"},{"key":"4498_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1328","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00385-4","volume":"9","author":"AM Parker","year":"2021","unstructured":"Parker AM, Brigham E, Connolly B, et al. Addressing the post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection: a multidisciplinary model of care. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9:1328\u201341.","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"4498_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(23)00239-4","volume":"11","author":"M Parotto","year":"2023","unstructured":"Parotto M, Gy\u00f6ngy\u00f6si M, Howe K, et al. Post-acute sequelae of COVID-19: understanding and addressing the burden of multisystem manifestations. Lancet Respir Med. 2023;11:739\u201354.","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"4498_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1226622","author":"M Augustin","year":"2023","unstructured":"Augustin M, Stecher M, W\u00fcstenberg H, et al. 15-month post-COVID syndrome in outpatients: attributes, risk factors, outcomes, and vaccination status. Front Immunol. 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1226622.","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"4498_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e60","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac655","volume":"76","author":"EB Fjelltveit","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fjelltveit EB, Blomberg B, Kuwelker K, et al. Symptom burden and immune dynamics 6 to 18 months following mild severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection (SARS-CoV-2): a case-control study. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76:e60\u201370.","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"4498_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kisiel MA, Lee S, Malmquist S, et al. Clustering analysis identified three long COVID phenotypes and their association with general health status and working ability. J Clin Med. 2023;12(11):3617.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12113617"},{"key":"4498_CR15","first-page":"1891","volume":"29","author":"A Mantovani","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mantovani A, Morrone MC, Patrono C, et al. Long Covid: where we stand and challenges ahead. Cell Death Differ. 2022;29:1891\u2013900.","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ"},{"key":"4498_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s42399-022-01167-4","volume":"4","author":"B Munipalli","year":"2022","unstructured":"Munipalli B, Seim L, Dawson NL, et al. Post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC): a meta-narrative review of pathophysiology, prevalence, and management. SN Compr Clin Med. 2022;4:90.","journal-title":"SN Compr Clin Med"},{"key":"4498_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherif ZA, Gomez CR, Connors TJ, et al. Pathogenic mechanisms of post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC). Elife. 2023;12:e86002.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.86002"},{"key":"4498_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2649","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00623-8","volume":"403","author":"B L\u00f6we","year":"2024","unstructured":"L\u00f6we B, Toussaint A, Rosmalen JGM, et al. Persistent physical symptoms: definition, genesis, and management. Lancet. 2024;403:2649\u201362.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"4498_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1505","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.15721","volume":"30","author":"T Teodoro","year":"2023","unstructured":"Teodoro T, Chen J, Gelauff J, et al. Functional neurological disorder in people with long COVID: a systematic review. Eur J Neurol. 2023;30:1505\u201314.","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"4498_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0000000000001643","volume":"211","author":"PMG Sales","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sales PMG, Greenfield MJ, Pinkhasov A, et al. Drawing the line between postacute sequelae of COVID-19 and functional neurologic disorders: a daunting clinical overlap or irrelevant conundrum? J Nerv Ment Dis. 2023;211:882\u20139.","journal-title":"J Nerv Ment Dis"},{"key":"4498_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davenport TE, Blitshteyn S, Clague-Baker N, et al. Long COVID is not a functional neurologic disorder. J Pers Med. 2024;14(8):799.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm14080799"},{"key":"4498_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-025-04050-w","volume":"23","author":"S Lee","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lee S, Kisiel MA, Lindberg P, et al. Using machine learning involving diagnoses and medications as a risk prediction tool for post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) in primary care. BMC Med. 2025;23:251.","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"key":"4498_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2023.0750","volume":"183","author":"V Tsampasian","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tsampasian V, Elghazaly H, Chattopadhyay R, et al. Risk factors associated with post\u2212COVID-19 condition: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2023;183:566\u201380.","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"key":"4498_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Engelmann P, Reinke M, Stein C, et al. Psychological factors associated with long COVID: a systematic review and meta-analysis. eClinMed. 2024;74:102756.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102756"},{"key":"4498_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01136-X","volume":"404","author":"T Greenhalgh","year":"2024","unstructured":"Greenhalgh T, Sivan M, Perlowski A, et al. Long COVID: a clinical update. Lancet. 2024;404:707\u201324.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"4498_CR26","unstructured":"OECD; European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. Sweden : Country Health Profile 2019. Paris: OECD Publishing; 2019. [cited 2025 Oct 29]. Available from: https:\/\/www.oecd.org\/en\/publications\/2019\/11\/sweden-country-health-profile-2019_3bbc25d5.html."},{"key":"4498_CR27","unstructured":"Region Stockholm. Liten befolknings\u00f6kning f\u00f6rsta kvartalet 2024 [Small population increase in the first quarter of 2024]: Region Stockholm; [cited 2025 Apr 10]. Available from: https:\/\/www.regionstockholm.se\/nyheter\/2024\/05\/liten-befolkningsokning-forsta-kvartalet-2024\/."},{"key":"4498_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-670","volume":"13","author":"AC Carlsson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Carlsson AC, W\u00e4ndell P, \u00d6sby U, et al. High prevalence of diagnosis of diabetes, depression, anxiety, hypertension, asthma and COPD in the total population of Stockholm, Sweden \u2013 a challenge for public health. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:670.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"4498_CR29","unstructured":"Swedish Pathogens Portal. SciLifeLab Data Centre; version 2.4.0 [software\/web portal]. [cited 2025 Apr 10]. Available from: https:\/\/www.pathogens.se, RRID: SCR_024866.\u00a0"},{"key":"4498_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1746","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsb2408466","volume":"391","author":"EW Ely","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ely EW, Brown LM, Fineberg HV. Long covid defined. N Engl J Med. 2024;391:1746\u201353.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"4498_CR31","unstructured":"World Health O. ICD-10 : International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems : Tenth Revision. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004."},{"key":"4498_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-546","volume":"13","author":"L Douglas","year":"2013","unstructured":"Douglas L, Szatkowski L. Socioeconomic variations in access to smoking cessation interventions in UK primary care: insights using the Mosaic classification in a large dataset of primary care records. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:546.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"4498_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-10-755","volume":"10","author":"A Sharma","year":"2010","unstructured":"Sharma A, Lewis S, Szatkowski L. Insights into social disparities in smoking prevalence using Mosaic, a novel measure of socioeconomic status: an analysis using a large primary care dataset. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:755.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"4498_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e532","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(22)00048-6","volume":"4","author":"ER Pfaff","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pfaff ER, Girvin AT, Bennett TD, et al. Identifying who has long COVID in the USA: a machine learning approach using N3C data. Lancet Digit Health. 2022;4:e532\u201341.","journal-title":"Lancet Digit Health"},{"key":"4498_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bai F, Tomasoni D, Falcinella C, et al. Female gender is associated with long COVID syndrome: a prospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2022;28:611.e9-.e16.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.11.002"},{"key":"4498_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01076","volume":"10","author":"E Ortona","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ortona E, Pierdominici M, Rider V. Editorial: Sex hormones and gender differences in immune responses. Front Immunol. 2019;10:1076.","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"4498_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.03.007","volume":"64","author":"J Koenig","year":"2016","unstructured":"Koenig J, Thayer JF. Sex differences in healthy human heart rate variability: a meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016;64:288\u2013310.","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"4498_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1038\/s44220-024-00290-6","volume":"2","author":"J Matta","year":"2024","unstructured":"Matta J, Pignon B, Kab S, et al. Depressive symptoms and sex differences in the risk of post-COVID-19 persistent symptoms: a prospective population-based cohort study. Nat Ment Health. 2024;2:1053\u201361.","journal-title":"Nat Ment Health"},{"key":"4498_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-021-00513-0","volume":"22","author":"DA Bangasser","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bangasser DA, Cuarenta A. Sex differences in anxiety and depression: circuits and mechanisms. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2021;22:674\u201384.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"4498_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2022.100995","volume":"66","author":"N Thomas","year":"2022","unstructured":"Thomas N, Gurvich C, Huang K, et al. The underlying sex differences in neuroendocrine adaptations relevant to myalgic encephalomyelitis chronic fatigue syndrome. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2022;66:100995.","journal-title":"Front Neuroendocrinol"},{"key":"4498_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rechlin RK, Splinter TFL, Hodges TE, et al. An analysis of neuroscience and psychiatry papers published from 2009 and 2019 outlines opportunities for increasing discovery of sex differences. Nat Commun. 2022;13:2137.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29903-3"},{"key":"4498_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2022.2640","volume":"79","author":"S Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang S, Quan L, Chavarro JE, et al. Associations of depression, anxiety, worry, perceived stress, and loneliness prior to infection with risk of post\u2013COVID-19 conditions. JAMA Psychiatr. 2022;79:1081\u201391.","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatr"},{"key":"4498_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.20102","volume":"298","author":"V Lak","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lak V, Sj\u00f6land H, Adiels M, et al. Preexisting symptoms increase the risk of developing long COVID during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. J Intern Med. 2025;298:107\u201322.","journal-title":"J Intern Med"},{"key":"4498_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13584","volume":"293","author":"P Hedberg","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hedberg P, Granath F, Bruchfeld J, et al. Post COVID-19 condition diagnosis: a population-based cohort study of occurrence, associated factors, and healthcare use by severity of acute infection. J Intern Med. 2023;293:246\u201358.","journal-title":"J Intern Med"},{"key":"4498_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-024-03477-x","volume":"22","author":"L-Y Lin","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lin L-Y, Henderson AD, Carlile O, et al. Healthcare utilisation in people with long COVID: an opensafely cohort study. BMC Med. 2024;22:255.","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"key":"4498_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2021-005427","volume":"6","author":"M Melina","year":"2021","unstructured":"Melina M, Lakshmi M, Natalie E, et al. Characterising long COVID: a living systematic review. BMJ Glob Health. 2021;6:e005427.","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Health"},{"key":"4498_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee C-H, Giuliani F. The role of inflammation in depression and fatigue. Front Immunol. 2019;10:1696.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01696"},{"key":"4498_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3672","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-020-00869-2","volume":"26","author":"J Lasselin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lasselin J, Lekander M, Benson S, et al. Sick for science: experimental endotoxemia as a translational tool to develop and test new therapies for inflammation-associated depression. Mol Psychiatry. 2021;26:3672\u201383.","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"4498_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2010.09.012","volume":"36","author":"R Dantzer","year":"2011","unstructured":"Dantzer R, O\u2019Connor JC, Lawson MA, et al. Inflammation-associated depression: from serotonin to kynurenine. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2011;36:426\u201336.","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"4498_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malioukis A, Snead RS, Marczika J, et al. Pathophysiological, neuropsychological, and psychosocial influences on neurological and neuropsychiatric symptoms of post-acute COVID-19 syndrome: impacts on recovery and symptom persistence. Biomedicines. 2024;12(12):2831.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12122831"},{"key":"4498_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wong TL, Weitzer DJ. Long COVID and myalgic encephalomyelitis\/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME\/CFS)-a systemic review and comparison of clinical presentation and symptomatology. Medicina (Kaunas). 2021;57(5):418.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina57050418"},{"key":"4498_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis HE, McCorkell L, Vogel JM, et al. Long COVID: major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023;21:133\u201346.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00846-2"},{"key":"4498_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/55.5.P273","volume":"55","author":"DA Grayson","year":"2000","unstructured":"Grayson DA, Mackinnon A, Jorm AF, et al. Item bias in the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: effects of physical disorders and disability in an elderly community sample. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2000;55:273-P82.","journal-title":"J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci"},{"key":"4498_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003773","volume":"18","author":"M Taquet","year":"2021","unstructured":"Taquet M, Dercon Q, Luciano S, et al. Incidence, co-occurrence, and evolution of long-COVID features: a 6-month retrospective cohort study of 273,618 survivors of COVID-19. PLoS Med. 2021;18:e1003773.","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"4498_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2022.111135","volume":"165","author":"C Lemogne","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lemogne C, Gouraud C, Pitron V, et al. Why the hypothesis of psychological mechanisms in long COVID is worth considering. J Psychosom Res. 2023;165:111135.","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"}],"container-title":["BMC Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12916-025-04498-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12916-025-04498-w\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12916-025-04498-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T17:22:52Z","timestamp":1763140972000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12916-025-04498-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4498"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12916-025-04498-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["1741-7015"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1741-7015","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 June 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 November 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Ethical approval was granted by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority under act number 2021\u201301016 and later amendments 2021\u201305735-02. All data were pseudonymized to protect patient privacy.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"633"}}