{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T23:57:38Z","timestamp":1789516658732,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771027200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":37,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004543","name":"China Scholarship Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004543","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006095","name":"South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006095","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Med"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Migraine and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) co-occur more frequently than would be expected by chance. However, little is known about whether there are causal links between maternal migraine during pregnancy and offspring ADHD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, we performed observational analyses to examine associations between first-trimester maternal migraine and offspring ADHD traits at age 7, with partners\u2019 migraine as a negative control. We complemented this with polygenic risk score (PRS) regression to assess the association of maternal genetic liability to migraine and offspring ADHD. Two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) was employed to estimate potential causal effects.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Maternal migraine during the first trimester of pregnancy was associated with elevated offspring ADHD traits (OR\u2009=\u20091.59 [1.22, 2.06]) while evidence was weak for partner\u2019s migraine (OR\u2009=\u20091.31 [0.95, 1.82]). Maternal PRS for migraine was associated with increased offspring ADHD traits at age 7 (OR\u2009=\u20091.21 [1.11, 1.32]). MR analyses provided limited evidence of a causal effect of migraine genetic liability on ADHD (OR\n                      <jats:sub>IVW<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.96 [0.92, 1.01]). There was weak evidence suggesting a potential causal effect of ADHD genetic liability on migraine (OR\n                      <jats:sub>IVW<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u2009=\u20091.08 [1.02, 1.13]).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Our findings do not support a direct intrauterine causal effect of maternal migraine on offspring ADHD traits. Instead, the observed associations might reflect shared genetic overlap between migraine and ADHD. Future studies should characterize the shared genetic architecture underlying migraine-ADHD links, distinguishing pleiotropic effects from mediated pathways.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-026-04692-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T01:04:12Z","timestamp":1771031052000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Maternal migraine and offspring ADHD: triangulating the evidence"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Yaxin","family":"Luo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"Dardani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robyn E.","family":"Wootton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Apostolos","family":"Gkatzionis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Evie","family":"Stergiakouli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s10194-019-0993-0","volume":"20","author":"M Leonardi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Leonardi M, Raggi A. A narrative review on the burden of migraine: when the burden is the impact on people\u2019s life. J Headache Pain. 2019;20(1):41.","journal-title":"J Headache Pain"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s10194-022-01402-2","volume":"23","author":"LJ Stovner","year":"2022","unstructured":"Stovner LJ, Hagen K, Linde M, Steiner TJ. The global prevalence of headache: an update, with analysis of the influences of methodological factors on prevalence estimates. J Headache Pain. 2022;23(1):34.","journal-title":"J Headache Pain"},{"key":"4692_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-823356-6.00017-2","volume":"198","author":"L Simmonds","year":"2023","unstructured":"Simmonds L, Mehta D, Cheema S, Matharu M. Epidemiology of migraine. Handb Clin Neurol. 2023;198:31\u20138.","journal-title":"Handb Clin Neurol"},{"issue":"6","key":"4692_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1468-2982.2001.00218.x","volume":"21","author":"C Dahlof","year":"2001","unstructured":"Dahlof C, Linde M. One-year prevalence of migraine in Sweden: a population-based study in adults. Cephalalgia. 2001;21(6):664\u201371.","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1111\/head.13665","volume":"60","author":"R Burch","year":"2020","unstructured":"Burch R. Epidemiology and treatment of menstrual migraine and migraine during pregnancy and lactation: a narrative review. Headache. 2020;60(1):200\u201316.","journal-title":"Headache"},{"key":"4692_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.10.046","volume":"297","author":"S de Vries Lentsch","year":"2022","unstructured":"de Vries Lentsch S, Louter MA, van Oosterhout W, van Zwet EW, van Noorden MS, Terwindt GM. Depressive symptoms during the different phases of a migraine attack: a prospective diary study. J Affect Disord. 2022;297:502\u20137.","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"4692_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.560138","volume":"11","author":"J Duan","year":"2020","unstructured":"Duan J, Yang R, Lu W, Zhao L, Hu S, Hu C. Comorbid bipolar disorder and migraine: from mechanisms to treatment. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:560138.","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"issue":"8","key":"4692_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-011-0203-9","volume":"261","author":"OB Fasmer","year":"2011","unstructured":"Fasmer OB, Halmoy A, Oedegaard KJ, Haavik J. Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is associated with migraine headaches. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2011;261(8):595\u2013602.","journal-title":"Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1186\/s13052-023-01456-1","volume":"49","author":"N Salari","year":"2023","unstructured":"Salari N, Ghasemi H, Abdoli N, Rahmani A, Shiri MH, Hashemian AH, et al. The global prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ital J Pediatr. 2023;49(1):48.","journal-title":"Ital J Pediatr"},{"issue":"6","key":"4692_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyab107","volume":"50","author":"C Dardani","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dardani C, Riglin L, Leppert B, Sanderson E, Rai D, Howe LD, et al. Is genetic liability to ADHD and ASD causally linked to educational attainment? Int J Epidemiol. 2022;50(6):2011\u201323.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"10","key":"4692_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2016.1775","volume":"170","author":"E Stergiakouli","year":"2016","unstructured":"Stergiakouli E, Thapar A, Davey Smith G. Association of acetaminophen use during pregnancy with behavioral problems in childhood: evidence against confounding. JAMA Pediatr. 2016;170(10):964\u201370.","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr"},{"issue":"11","key":"4692_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30312-6","volume":"7","author":"JH Kim","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kim JH, Kim JY, Lee J, Jeong GH, Lee E, Lee S, et al. Environmental risk factors, protective factors, and peripheral biomarkers for ADHD: an umbrella review. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(11):955\u201370.","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"4692_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S2045796021000421","volume":"30","author":"H Wang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wang H, He H, Miao M, Yu Y, Liu H, Zhang J, et al. Maternal migraine and the risk of psychiatric disorders in offspring: a population-based cohort study. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2021;30:e55.","journal-title":"Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12991-024-00508-y","volume":"23","author":"DJ Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li DJ, Tsai SJ, Chen TJ, Liang CS, Chen MH. Risk of major mental disorders in the offspring of parents with migraine. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2024;23(1):23.","journal-title":"Ann Gen Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"4692_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1111\/head.13536","volume":"59","author":"N Skajaa","year":"2019","unstructured":"Skajaa N, Szepligeti SK, Xue F, Sorensen HT, Ehrenstein V, Eisele O, et al. Pregnancy, birth, neonatal, and postnatal neurological outcomes after pregnancy with migraine. Headache. 2019;59(6):869\u201379.","journal-title":"Headache"},{"key":"4692_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2023.08.007","volume":"86","author":"C Crump","year":"2023","unstructured":"Crump C, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Preterm or early term birth and risk of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a national cohort and co-sibling study. Ann Epidemiol. 2023;86:119-25 e4.","journal-title":"Ann Epidemiol"},{"key":"4692_CR17","unstructured":"Brainstorm C, Anttila V, Bulik-Sullivan B, Finucane HK, Walters RK, Bras J, et al. Analysis of shared heritability in common disorders of the brain. Science. 2018;360:eaap8757."},{"issue":"5","key":"4692_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1111\/head.14306","volume":"62","author":"TW Hsu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hsu TW, Chen MH, Chu CS, Tsai SJ, Bai YM, Su TP, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and risk of migraine: a nationwide longitudinal study. Headache. 2022;62(5):634\u201341.","journal-title":"Headache"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dys064","volume":"42","author":"A Boyd","year":"2013","unstructured":"Boyd A, Golding J, Macleod J, Lawlor DA, Fraser A, Henderson J, et al. Cohort profile: the \u2018children of the 90s\u2019- -the index offspring of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Int J Epidemiol. 2013;42(1):111\u201327.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dys066","volume":"42","author":"A Fraser","year":"2013","unstructured":"Fraser A, Macdonald-Wallis C, Tilling K, Boyd A, Golding J, Davey Smith G, et al. Cohort profile: the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children: ALSPAC mothers cohort. Int J Epidemiol. 2013;42(1):97\u2013110.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"11","key":"4692_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1890","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291720000665","volume":"51","author":"L Riglin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Riglin L, Leppert B, Dardani C, Thapar AK, Rice F, O\u2019Donovan MC, et al. ADHD and depression: investigating a causal explanation. Psychol Med. 2021;51(11):1890\u20137.","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"4692_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x","volume":"38","author":"R Goodman","year":"1997","unstructured":"Goodman R. The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997;38(5):581\u20136.","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"4692_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2019.04.026","volume":"111","author":"C Bergh","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bergh C, Pinborg A, Wennerholm UB. Parental age and child outcomes. Fertil Steril. 2019;111(6):1036\u201346.","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"issue":"6","key":"4692_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2028","DOI":"10.14336\/AD.2023.0313","volume":"14","author":"M Fila","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fila M, Pawlowska E, Szczepanska J, Blasiak J. Different aspects of aging in migraine. Aging Dis. 2023;14(6):2028\u201350.","journal-title":"Aging Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s10194-008-0006-1","volume":"9","author":"A Panconesi","year":"2008","unstructured":"Panconesi A. Alcohol and migraine: trigger factor, consumption, mechanisms. A review. J Headache Pain. 2008;9(1):19\u201327.","journal-title":"J Headache Pain"},{"issue":"5","key":"4692_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyx067","volume":"46","author":"EM Eilertsen","year":"2017","unstructured":"Eilertsen EM, Gjerde LC, Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Orstavik RE, Knudsen GP, Stoltenberg C, et al. Maternal alcohol use during pregnancy and offspring attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a prospective sibling control study. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46(5):1633\u201340.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"4692_CR27","volume":"12","author":"S Jahangir","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jahangir S, Adjepong D, Al-Shami HA, Malik BH. Is there an association between migraine and major depressive disorder? A narrative review. Cureus. 2020;12(6):e8551.","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"4692_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2021.06.005","volume":"63","author":"NL Nidey","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nidey NL, Momany AM, Strathearn L, Carter KD, Wehby GL, Bao W, et al. Association between perinatal depression and risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children: a retrospective cohort study. Ann Epidemiol. 2021;63:1\u20136.","journal-title":"Ann Epidemiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"4692_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2982.2004.00839.x","volume":"25","author":"F Radat","year":"2005","unstructured":"Radat F, Swendsen J. Psychiatric comorbidity in migraine: a review. Cephalalgia. 2005;25(3):165\u201378.","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"issue":"8","key":"4692_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1177\/0333102409357958","volume":"30","author":"S Ashina","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ashina S, Lyngberg A, Jensen R. Headache characteristics and chronification of migraine and tension-type headache: a population-based study. Cephalalgia. 2010;30(8):943\u201352.","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"issue":"11","key":"4692_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-019-01460-z","volume":"29","author":"G Perez Algorta","year":"2020","unstructured":"Perez Algorta G, MacPherson HA, Arnold LE, Hinshaw SP, Hechtman L, Sibley MH, et al. Maternal personality traits moderate treatment response in the Multimodal Treatment Study of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2020;29(11):1513\u201324.","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"issue":"2","key":"4692_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1177\/0333102411430854","volume":"32","author":"AC Winter","year":"2012","unstructured":"Winter AC, Berger K, Buring JE, Kurth T. Associations of socioeconomic status with migraine and non-migraine headache. Cephalalgia. 2012;32(2):159\u201370.","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"issue":"11","key":"4692_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182a43b32","volume":"81","author":"WF Stewart","year":"2013","unstructured":"Stewart WF, Roy J, Lipton RB. Migraine prevalence, socioeconomic status, and social causation. Neurology. 2013;81(11):948\u201355.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"6","key":"4692_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0128248","volume":"10","author":"AE Russell","year":"2015","unstructured":"Russell AE, Ford T, Russell G. Socioeconomic associations with ADHD: findings from a mediation analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(6):e0128248.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"6","key":"4692_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1017\/thg.2012.55","volume":"15","author":"AC Schermerhorn","year":"2012","unstructured":"Schermerhorn AC, D\u2019Onofrio BM, Slutske WS, Emery RE, Turkheimer E, Harden KP, et al. Offspring ADHD as a risk factor for parental marital problems: controls for genetic and environmental confounds. Twin Res Hum Genet. 2012;15(6):700\u201313.","journal-title":"Twin Res Hum Genet"},{"issue":"3","key":"4692_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0264709","volume":"17","author":"NJ Spencer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Spencer NJ, Ludvigsson J, Bai G, Gauvin L, Clifford SA, Abu Awad Y, et al. Social gradients in ADHD by household income and maternal education exposure during early childhood: findings from birth cohort studies across six countries. PLoS One. 2022;17(3):e0264709.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"2","key":"4692_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-7843.2007.00191.x","volume":"102","author":"GD Smith","year":"2008","unstructured":"Smith GD. Assessing intrauterine influences on offspring health outcomes: can epidemiological studies yield robust findings? Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2008;102(2):245\u201356.","journal-title":"Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol"},{"key":"4692_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a038877","author":"A Thapar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Thapar A, Rice F. Family-based designs that disentangle inherited factors from pre- and postnatal environmental exposures: in vitro fertilization, discordant sibling pairs, maternal versus paternal comparisons, and adoption designs. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2021. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/cshperspect.a038877.","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"4692_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3598","volume":"48","author":"P Gormley","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gormley P, Anttila V, Winsvold BS, Palta P, Esko T, Pers TH, et al. Meta-analysis of 375,000 individuals identifies 38 susceptibility loci for migraine. Nat Genet. 2016;48(8):856\u201366.","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"issue":"2","key":"4692_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-021-00990-0","volume":"54","author":"H Hautakangas","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hautakangas H, Winsvold BS, Ruotsalainen SE, Bjornsdottir G, Harder AVE, Kogelman LJA, et al. Genome-wide analysis of 102,084 migraine cases identifies 123 risk loci and subtype-specific risk alleles. Nat Genet. 2022;54(2):152\u201360.","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"issue":"8","key":"4692_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1847","volume":"38","author":"AL Price","year":"2006","unstructured":"Price AL, Patterson NJ, Plenge RM, Weinblatt ME, Shadick NA, Reich D. Principal components analysis corrects for stratification in genome-wide association studies. Nat Genet. 2006;38(8):904\u20139.","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"4692_CR42","unstructured":"Cox DR, Snell EJ. Analysis of binary data. 2nd ed. London, New York: Chapman and Hall; 1989."},{"issue":"8","key":"4692_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.3034","volume":"27","author":"DA Lawlor","year":"2008","unstructured":"Lawlor DA, Harbord RM, Sterne JA, Timpson N, Davey Smith G. Mendelian randomization: using genes as instruments for making causal inferences in epidemiology. Stat Med. 2008;27(8):1133\u201363.","journal-title":"Stat Med"},{"issue":"R1","key":"4692_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R89","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddu328","volume":"23","author":"G Davey Smith","year":"2014","unstructured":"Davey Smith G, Hemani G. Mendelian randomization: genetic anchors for causal inference in epidemiological studies. Hum Mol Genet. 2014;23(R1):R89-98.","journal-title":"Hum Mol Genet"},{"issue":"9","key":"4692_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2759","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-020-0353-1","volume":"15","author":"SW Choi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Choi SW, Mak TS, O\u2019Reilly PF. Tutorial: a guide to performing polygenic risk score analyses. Nat Protoc. 2020;15(9):2759\u201372.","journal-title":"Nat Protoc"},{"issue":"2","key":"4692_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-022-01285-8","volume":"55","author":"D Demontis","year":"2023","unstructured":"Demontis D, Walters GB, Athanasiadis G, Walters R, Therrien K, Nielsen TT, et al. Genome-wide analyses of ADHD identify 27 risk loci, refine the genetic architecture and implicate several cognitive domains. Nat Genet. 2023;55(2):198\u2013208.","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"4692_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.10567.1","volume":"2","author":"D Lawlor","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lawlor D, Richmond R, Warrington N, McMahon G, Davey Smith G, Bowden J, et al. Using Mendelian randomization to determine causal effects of maternal pregnancy (intrauterine) exposures on offspring outcomes: sources of bias and methods for assessing them. Wellcome Open Res. 2017;2:11.","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res"},{"issue":"7","key":"4692_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1002\/gepi.21758","volume":"37","author":"S Burgess","year":"2013","unstructured":"Burgess S, Butterworth A, Thompson SG. Mendelian randomization analysis with multiple genetic variants using summarized data. Genet Epidemiol. 2013;37(7):658\u201365.","journal-title":"Genet Epidemiol"},{"issue":"349","key":"4692_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1975.10480285","volume":"70","author":"KD Patil","year":"1975","unstructured":"Patil KD. Cochran\u2019s Q test: exact distribution. J Am Stat Assoc. 1975;70(349):186\u20139.","journal-title":"J Am Stat Assoc"},{"issue":"4","key":"4692_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyy101","volume":"47","author":"J Bowden","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bowden J, Spiller W, Del Greco MF, Sheehan N, Thompson J, Minelli C, et al. Improving the visualization, interpretation and analysis of two-sample summary data Mendelian randomization via the radial plot and radial regression. Int J Epidemiol. 2018;47(4):1264\u201378.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"4692_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-017-0255-x","volume":"32","author":"S Burgess","year":"2017","unstructured":"Burgess S, Thompson SG. Interpreting findings from Mendelian randomization using the MR-Egger method. Eur J Epidemiol. 2017;32(5):377\u201389.","journal-title":"Eur J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"4692_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1002\/gepi.21965","volume":"40","author":"J Bowden","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bowden J, Davey Smith G, Haycock PC, Burgess S. Consistent estimation in Mendelian randomization with some invalid instruments using a weighted median estimator. Genet Epidemiol. 2016;40(4):304\u201314.","journal-title":"Genet Epidemiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"4692_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyx102","volume":"46","author":"FP Hartwig","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hartwig FP, Davey Smith G, Bowden J. Robust inference in summary data Mendelian randomization via the zero modal pleiotropy assumption. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46(6):1985\u201398.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-021-02356-y","volume":"4","author":"H Choquet","year":"2021","unstructured":"Choquet H, Yin J, Jacobson AS, Horton BH, Hoffmann TJ, Jorgenson E, et al. New and sex-specific migraine susceptibility loci identified from a multiethnic genome-wide meta-analysis. Commun Biol. 2021;4(1):864.","journal-title":"Commun Biol"},{"key":"4692_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.34408","author":"G Hemani","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hemani G, Zheng J, Elsworth B, Wade KH, Haberland V, Baird D, et al. The MR-Base platform supports systematic causal inference across the human phenome. Elife. 2018. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.34408.","journal-title":"Elife"},{"issue":"10","key":"4692_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2018.06.001","volume":"40","author":"MO Kutuk","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kutuk MO, Tufan AE, Guler G, Yalin OO, Altintas E, Bag HG, et al. Migraine and associated comorbidities are three times more frequent in children with ADHD and their mothers. Brain Dev. 2018;40(10):857\u201364.","journal-title":"Brain Dev"},{"key":"4692_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2024.08.465","volume":"87","author":"P Carab\u00ed","year":"2024","unstructured":"Carab\u00ed P, Llonga N, Zubizarreta-Arruti U, Macias-Chimborazo V, Alemany S, Rodriguez M, et al. F54. Genetic overlap between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and migraine. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2024;87:234.","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"issue":"4","key":"4692_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpsgos.2025.100517","volume":"5","author":"NP Ciochetti","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ciochetti NP, de Oliveira VF, Junger-Santos I, Bandeira CE, Tavares ME, Vitola ES, et al. Genetic interplay between attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and pain suggests neurodevelopmental pathways and comorbidity risk. Biol Psychiatry Glob Open Sci. 2025;5(4):100517.","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry Glob Open Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-01919-9","volume":"12","author":"M Garcia-Argibay","year":"2022","unstructured":"Garcia-Argibay M, du Rietz E, Lu Y, Martin J, Haan E, Lehto K, et al. The role of ADHD genetic risk in mid-to-late life somatic health conditions. Transl Psychiatry. 2022;12(1):152.","journal-title":"Transl Psychiatry"},{"key":"4692_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/58105","volume":"10","author":"SA Kim","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kim SA, Han K, Choi S, Youn MS, Jang H, Lee MJ. Effect of smoking on the development of migraine in women: nationwide cohort study in South Korea. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2024;10:e58105.","journal-title":"JMIR Public Health Surveill"},{"issue":"2","key":"4692_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/03331024241229410","volume":"44","author":"K Phillips","year":"2024","unstructured":"Phillips K, Clerkin-Oliver C, Nirantharakumar K, Crowe FL, Wakerley BR. How migraine and its associated treatment impact on pregnancy outcomes: umbrella review with updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Cephalalgia. 2024;44(2):3331024241229410.","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"4692_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm11090868","author":"B Schmitz-Koep","year":"2021","unstructured":"Schmitz-Koep B, Haller B, Coupe P, Menegaux A, Gaser C, Zimmer C, et al. Grey and white matter volume changes after preterm birth: a meta-analytic approach. J Pers Med. 2021. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jpm11090868.","journal-title":"J Pers Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"4692_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2012.01.003","volume":"36","author":"H van Ewijk","year":"2012","unstructured":"van Ewijk H, Heslenfeld DJ, Zwiers MP, Buitelaar JK, Oosterlaan J. Diffusion tensor imaging in attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2012;36(4):1093\u2013106.","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-017-0442-1","volume":"17","author":"JC Jakobsen","year":"2017","unstructured":"Jakobsen JC, Gluud C, Wetterslev J, Winkel P. When and how should multiple imputation be used for handling missing data in randomised clinical trials - a practical guide with flowcharts. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2017;17(1):162.","journal-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol"},{"issue":"4","key":"4692_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.13297","volume":"62","author":"L Riglin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Riglin L, Leppert B, Langley K, Thapar AK, O\u2019Donovan MC, Davey Smith G, et al. Investigating attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder traits in the general population: what happens in adult life? J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2021;62(4):449\u201357.","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"4","key":"4692_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2013.05.002","volume":"28","author":"EA Harvey","year":"2013","unstructured":"Harvey EA, Fischer C, Weieneth JL, Hurwitz SD, Sayer AG. Predictors of discrepancies between informants\u2019 ratings of preschool-aged children\u2019s behavior: an examination of ethnicity, child characteristics, and family functioning. Early Child Res Q. 2013;28(4):668\u201382.","journal-title":"Early Child Res Q"},{"issue":"1","key":"4692_CR67","first-page":"55","volume":"12","author":"G Akbarzadeh","year":"2018","unstructured":"Akbarzadeh G, Daniali H, Javdzadh M, Caes L, Ranjbar S, Habibi M. The relationship of parental pain catastrophizing with parents reports of children\u2019s anxiety, depression, and headache severity. Iran J Child Neurol. 2018;12(1):55\u201366.","journal-title":"Iran J Child Neurol"},{"issue":"11","key":"4692_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1843","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-023-01538-0","volume":"55","author":"G Bjornsdottir","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bjornsdottir G, Chalmer MA, Stefansdottir L, Skuladottir AT, Einarsson G, Andresdottir M, et al. Rare variants with large effects provide functional insights into the pathology of migraine subtypes, with and without aura. Nat Genet. 2023;55(11):1843\u201353.","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"issue":"3","key":"4692_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyz019","volume":"48","author":"DM Evans","year":"2019","unstructured":"Evans DM, Moen GH, Hwang LD, Lawlor DA, Warrington NM. Elucidating the role of maternal environmental exposures on offspring health and disease using two-sample Mendelian randomization. Int J Epidemiol. 2019;48(3):861\u201375.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"}],"container-title":["BMC Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12916-026-04692-4","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12916-026-04692-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12916-026-04692-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T17:02:42Z","timestamp":1774285362000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12916-026-04692-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4692"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12916-026-04692-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["1741-7015"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1741-7015","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"19 July 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 February 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 February 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study did not involve the recruitment of study subjects or new biomedical experiments. This research involved no human or animal experimentation. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the ALSPAC Ethics and Law Committee and the Local Research Ethics Committees (approval reference B4240). All participants provided informed consent prior to participation.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"167"}}