{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T03:13:06Z","timestamp":1789614786718,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]],"date-time":"2019-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1573776000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]],"date-time":"2019-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1573776000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001458","name":"American Kennel Club Canine Health Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["02380-A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["02380-A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001458","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Vet Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Canine leptospirosis is a reemerging zoonotic disease concern in North America, and a better understanding of its epidemiology is needed. Wide-scale use and subsequent analyses of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing may provide additional insight into leptospirosis. This study aimed to describe temporal trends, to descriptively map, and to identify environmental, dog, and human-level factors associated with positive canine leptospirosis PCR test results in the United States.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Data obtained from IDEXX Laboratories, Inc. on 40,118 canine leptospirosis PCR tests run in the United States between 2009 and 2016 were evaluated. Climate and socioeconomic (e.g. urban influence, income) data were obtained from public databases. Choropleth maps were created to identify high test-positive proportion areas and a cross-sectional analysis was completed with generalized (univariable, followed by multivariable) mixed logistic regression models accounting for county within state to identify significant predictors for a positive test. Overall test-positive proportion was 5.4% across the United States, with the regional point estimate highest in the southwest (8.1%). In the final multivariable model, the odds of a positive test were greater for male dogs (Odds Ratio [OR]\u2009=\u20091.28) and dogs 0\u20134\u2009years of age (ORs ranged from 0.35\u20130.71 for the other age groups). The odds of a positive test were greater for dogs living in areas with wet environmental conditions (OR\u2009=\u20091.24). Season and temperature, as well as the interaction between them, were significant predictors of a positive test. Dogs had a greater probability of testing positive during cool temperatures (&lt;\u20094\u2009\u00b0C) compared to the other temperature categories in the fall season.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings based on PCR testing allow for an improved understanding of factors influencing a positive canine leptospirosis PCR test and will assist targeted education and prevention efforts.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-019-2148-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]],"date-time":"2019-11-15T17:02:47Z","timestamp":1573837367000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["A cross-sectional study of environmental, dog, and human-related risk factors for positive canine leptospirosis PCR test results in the United States, 2009 to 2016"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0403-6548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanda M.","family":"Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9ia Gon\u00e7alves","family":"Arruda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle D.","family":"Evason","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. S.","family":"Weese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas E.","family":"Wittum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Donald","family":"Szlosek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason W.","family":"Stull","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]]},"reference":[{"issue":"14","key":"2148_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.163.14.409","volume":"163","author":"I van de Maele","year":"2008","unstructured":"van de Maele I, Claus A, Haesebrouck F, Daminet S. Leptospirosis in dogs: a review with emphasis on clinical aspects. Vet Rec. 2008;163(14):409\u201313.","journal-title":"Vet Rec"},{"issue":"2","key":"2148_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001","volume":"14","author":"PN Levett","year":"2001","unstructured":"Levett PN. Leptospirosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001;14(2):296\u2013326.","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"2148_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2010.0654.x","volume":"25","author":"JE Sykes","year":"2011","unstructured":"Sykes JE, Hartmann K, Lunn KF, Moore GE, Stoddard RA, Goldstein RE. 2010 ACVIM small animal consensus statement on leptospirosis: diagnosis, epidemiology, treatment, and prevention. J Vet Intern Med. 2011;25(1):1\u201313.","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"2148_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2010.05.017","volume":"96","author":"R Gautam","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gautam R, Guptill LF, Wu CC, Potter A, Moore GE. Spatial and spatio-temporal clustering of overall and serovars-specific Leptospira microscopic agglutination test (MAT) seropositivity among dogs in the United States from 2000 through 2007. Prev Vet Med. 2010;96(1\u20132):122\u201331.","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"2148_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2017.02.009","volume":"222","author":"AM White","year":"2017","unstructured":"White AM, Zambrana-Torrelio C, Allen T, Rostal MK, Wright AK, Ball EC, et al. Hotspots of canine leptospirosis in the United States of America. Vet J. 2017;222:29\u201335.","journal-title":"Vet J"},{"issue":"3","key":"2148_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(02)00183-6","volume":"56","author":"MP Ward","year":"2002","unstructured":"Ward MP. Seasonality of canine leptospirosis in the United States and Canada and its association with rainfall. Prev Vet Med. 2002;56(3):203\u201313.","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"2148_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.237.3.293","volume":"237","author":"R Gautam","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gautam R, Wu CC, Guptill LF, Potter A, Moore GE. Detection of antibodies against Leptospira serovars via microscopic agglutination tests in dogs in the United States, 2000-2007. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2010;237(3):293\u20138.","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"12","key":"2148_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1958","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2004.224.1958","volume":"224","author":"MP Ward","year":"2004","unstructured":"Ward MP, Guptill LF, Prahl A, Wu CC. Serovar-specific prevalence and risk factors for leptospirosis among dogs: 90 cases (1997-2002). J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2004;224(12):1958\u201363.","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"1","key":"2148_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2002.220.53","volume":"220","author":"MP Ward","year":"2002","unstructured":"Ward MP, Glickman LT, Guptill LE. Prevalence of and risk factors for leptospirosis among dogs in the United States and Canada: 677 cases (1970-1998). J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2002;220(1):53\u20138.","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"2148_CR10","first-page":"241","volume":"101","author":"R Raghavan","year":"2011","unstructured":"Raghavan R, Brenner K, Higgins J, Van der Merwe D, Harkin KR. Evaluations of land cover risk factors for canine leptospirosis: 94 cases (2002-2009). PrevVet Med. 2011;101(3\u20134):241\u20139.","journal-title":"PrevVet Med"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"2148_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2012.04.003","volume":"106","author":"R Raghavan","year":"2012","unstructured":"Raghavan R, Brenner KM, Higgins JJ, Shawn Hutchinson JM, Harkin KR. Neighborhood-level socioeconomic and urban land use risk factors of canine leptospirosis: 94 cases (2002-2009). Prev Vet Med. 2012;106(3\u20134):324\u201331.","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med."},{"issue":"3","key":"2148_CR12","first-page":"167","volume":"73","author":"GD Alton","year":"2009","unstructured":"Alton GD, Berke O, Reid-Smith R, Ojkic D, Prescott F. Increase in seroprevalence of canine leptospirosis and its risk factors, Ontario 1998-2006. Can J Vet Res. 2009;73(3):167\u201375.","journal-title":"Can J Vet Res"},{"issue":"10","key":"2148_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2014.1624","volume":"14","author":"JH Hennebelle","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hennebelle JH, Sykes JE, Foley J. Risk factors associated with leptospirosis in dogs from northern California: 2001-2010. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2014;14(10):733\u20139.","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"2148_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.242.7.941","volume":"242","author":"JH Hennebelle","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hennebelle JH, Sykes JE, Carpenter TE, Foley J. Spatial and temporal patterns of Leptospira infection in dogs from northern California: 67 cases (2001-2010). J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2013;242(7):941\u20137.","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"9","key":"2148_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2003.222.1230","volume":"222","author":"KR Harkin","year":"2003","unstructured":"Harkin KR, Roshto YM, Sullivan JT, Purvis TJ, Chengappa MM. Comparison of polymerase chain reaction assay, bacteriologic culture, and serologic testing in assessment of prevalence of urinary shedding of leptospirosis in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2003;222(9):1230\u20133.","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"3","key":"2148_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12335","volume":"28","author":"HS Lee","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lee HS, Levine M, Guptill-Yoran C, Johnson AJ, von Kamecke P, Moore GE. Regional and temporal variations of Leptospira seropositivity in dogs in the United States, 2000-2010. J Vet Intern Med. 2014;28(3):779\u201388.","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"2148_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2000.216.371","volume":"216","author":"CA Adin","year":"2000","unstructured":"Adin CA, Cowgill LD. Treatment and outcome of dogs with leptospirosis: 36 cases (1990-1998). J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2000;216(3):371\u20135.","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"1","key":"2148_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1017\/S095026881600203X","volume":"145","author":"A Sumi","year":"2017","unstructured":"Sumi A, Telan EF, Chagan-Yasutan H, Piolo MB, Hattori T, Kobayashi N. Effect of temperature, relative humidity and rainfall on dengue fever and leptospirosis infections in Manila, the Philippines. Epidemiol Infect. 2017;145(1):78\u201386.","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"issue":"12","key":"2148_CR19","first-page":"955","volume":"43","author":"JF Prescott","year":"2002","unstructured":"Prescott JF, McEwen B, Taylor J, Woods JP, Abrams-Ogg A, Wilcock B. Resurgence of leptospirosis in dogs in Ontario: recent findings. Can Vet J. 2002;43(12):955\u201361.","journal-title":"Can Vet J"},{"issue":"1","key":"2148_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2006043","volume":"38","author":"GS Ghneim","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ghneim GS, Viers JH, Chomel BB, Kass PH, Descollonges DA, Johnson ML. Use of a case-control study and geographic information systems to determine environmental and demographic risk factors for canine leptospirosis. Vet Res. 2007;38(1):37\u201350.","journal-title":"Vet Res"},{"issue":"10","key":"2148_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1816","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2005.66.1816","volume":"66","author":"JJ Greenlee","year":"2005","unstructured":"Greenlee JJ, Alt DP, Bolin CA, Zuerner RL, Andreasen CB. Experimental canine leptospirosis caused by Leptospira interrogans serovars Pomona and Bratislava. Am J Vet Res. 2005;66(10):1816\u201322.","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res"},{"key":"2148_CR22","unstructured":"Pet Ownership Calculator. The American Veterinary Medical Association. https:\/\/www.avma.org\/KB\/Resources\/Statistics\/Pages\/US-pet-ownership-calculator.aspx. Accessed 27 June 2018."},{"key":"2148_CR23","unstructured":"Palmer Drought Severity Index. National Center for Atmospheric Research. https:\/\/climatedataguide.ucar.edu\/climate-data\/palmer-drought-severity-index-pdsi. Accessed 28 Apr 2019."}],"container-title":["BMC Veterinary Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12917-019-2148-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12917-019-2148-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12917-019-2148-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,5]],"date-time":"2022-10-05T17:53:50Z","timestamp":1664992430000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12917-019-2148-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["2148"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12917-019-2148-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["1746-6148"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1746-6148","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"5 July 2019","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 October 2019","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 November 2019","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"412"}}