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However, this can be opposed by massive defensive movements, hypothermia and tachycardia during castration and a long recovery period. The aim of the present study was to test whether the use of S-ketamine and\/or a change in the route of application from intramuscular to intranasal could reduce stress responses and the duration of recovery compared to the intramuscular route and the use of racemic ketamine. Seventy-eight healthy, five-day-old male piglets were randomized to six treatment groups in a blinded experimental study, matched by litter and weight. Experimental groups were A (15\u00a0mg kg-1\u00a0S-ketamine\u2009+\u20092\u00a0mg kg-1 azaperone, i.m., surgical castration), B (15\u00a0mg kg-1 R\/S-ketamine racemate\u2009+\u20092\u00a0mg kg-1 azaperone, i.m., surgical castration), C (30\u00a0mg kg-1\u00a0S-ketamine\u2009+\u20092\u00a0mg kg-1 azaperone, i.n., surgical castration), D (15\u00a0mg kg-1 R\/S-ketamine racemate\u2009+\u20092\u00a0mg kg-1 azaperone, i.m.; not castrated), E (positive control group; no anesthesia, surgical castration) and F (negative control group; no anesthesia, not castrated).<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>S-ketamine reduced the defensive movement score during castration to a similar extent to racemic ketamine when administered intramuscularly but not via the intranasal route. However, the effects of S-ketamine (both routes) on the increase in cortisol levels and decrease in body temperature were similar to those induced by racemic ketamine. A reduction of the long recovery time known for ketamine-azaperone anaesthesia could not be achieved with S-ketamine in the given dosage, regardless of the route of application. The intranasal administration of ketamine was difficult with the available formulation as the necessary amount exceeded the capacity of the nose cavity.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Neither the use of S-ketamine nor intranasal administration can be suitable alternatives for the anaesthesia of male suckling piglets for castration.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-021-02826-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,9]],"date-time":"2021-04-09T12:33:54Z","timestamp":1617971634000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["S-ketamine and intranasal application: alternatives for the castration of male suckling piglets?"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Sabrina","family":"Becker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Maier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Saskia","family":"Peters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kathrin","family":"B\u00fcttner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gerald","family":"Reiner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"2826_CR1","first-page":"713","volume":"87","author":"KH Lahrmann","year":"2006","unstructured":"Lahrmann KH. 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The statistical design was approved by the responsible authority as part of the experimental approval. Within this permission is also the permission for statistical sample size calculation. We obtained written informed consent to use the animals in our study from the owner of the animals. For reasons of data protection, the farm was anonymised, however, it was authorised by the responsible authority.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"122"}}