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Equine parapoxvirus (EqPPV) was first detected in a sick horse in Finland in 2013. It is potentially zoonotic, and a similar virus has been detected in humans in the USA. In winter 2021\u20132022, EqPPV caused a large-scale pastern dermatitis epidemic in racehorses all over Finland. Field reports suggest that similar epidemics of unverified cause have also occurred in 2015 and 2019. The aim of this study was to develop a serological test and study the immune response, seroprevalence, and history of the virus utilizing serum samples from clinical cases and archived horse samples (2012\u20132022).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A recombinant protein-based immunofluorescent assay was established using envelope proteins B2L and F1L. EqPPV induced a fast immune response within a few days from the onset of the clinical signs. Two horses that were additionally tested a year after the disease still had similar IgG titers as a year prior. Seroprevalence peaks coincided with reported outbreaks in 2015 and 2022 (yearly variation: 1.8\u201314.6% [B2L] and 3.6\u201316.7% [F1L]).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The results suggest that EqPPV is a re-emerging pathogen that has a potential to cause large epidemics, bringing a need for more studies and preparedness.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-026-05314-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]],"date-time":"2026-01-24T09:53:03Z","timestamp":1769248383000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Antibody responses to equine parapoxvirus reveal a re-emerging pattern"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Jenni","family":"Pettersson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lev","family":"Levanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanna","family":"Tervo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katja","family":"Hautala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kirsi","family":"Aaltonen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mira","family":"Utriainen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lauri","family":"Kareinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tuija","family":"Gadd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tarja","family":"Sironen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olli","family":"Vapalahti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paula M.","family":"Kinnunen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"5314_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2009.08.026","volume":"140","author":"S Essbauer","year":"2010","unstructured":"Essbauer S, Pfeffer M, Meyer H. 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Hence, no ethical approval was required (European Union directive 2010\/63\/EU and the national act 497\/2013). Samples from horses suffering from pastern dermatitis were originally taken by veterinarians for diagnostic purposes. Archived samples are routinely taken and stored by Finnish Food Authority and were not collected for the purpose of this study.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"Besides holding the title of Associate Professor (Docent) of University of Helsinki, PMK is an employee of MSD Animal Health. The EqPPV studies were initiated before her joining the company. Other authors have nothing to declare.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"111"}}