{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T13:45:23Z","timestamp":1791985523403,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]],"date-time":"2026-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781913600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791936000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":116,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000193","name":"International Development Research Centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["110337"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["110337"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000193","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Vet Res"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>As the threat of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) escalates globally, the influence of indiscriminate antimicrobial use (AMU) in livestock cannot be overlooked. Antimicrobial use practices are continually explored in larger food-producing animals; however, small ruminants (sheep and goats) receive comparatively less research attention. Our study addresses this gap by investigating small ruminant production practices in Nigeria and exploring how they affect the use of antimicrobials and alternatives.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We adopted a mixed-methods study design. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 785 farmers. Following this, a focus group discussion (FGD) was conducted with 23 small ruminant industry stakeholders, which included farmers, para-veterinarians, and butchers. Participants were split into three round tables, with 7\u20138 participants per table.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Of questionnaire respondents, 68% of farmers never vaccinated their flock against peste de petits ruminants (PPR) nor contagious caprine pleuropneumonia virus. Several health problems were regularly experienced by animals, including PPR, mastitis, and dermatophilosis. Diseases were mostly self-managed with antibiotics and herbs (&gt;\u200970%) rather than through reliance on veterinary care (&lt;\u200915%). More farmers (48%) used antibiotics than herbal remedies (14%) over the previous three months. Farmers\u2019 use of herbs was affected by their having low awareness of available options and how to use them appropriately. Perceived effectiveness also influenced farmers\u2019 choice between antibiotics and herbs, while economic considerations also led them to sell off sick animals before or during treatment. Among farmers who used animal health services, more farmers (59%) consulted unlicensed para-veterinarians and drugstore vendors rather than licensed government and private veterinarians (36%), a disparity attributed to the unavailability of qualified veterinary doctors. Most farmers had poor knowledge (62%), attitudes (47%), and practices (43%) towards AMU and AMR.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We recommend conducting further studies to identify and investigate the efficacy of currently used herbs in treating common diseases. There is a crucial need to improve farmers\u2019 access to vaccines, veterinary care, and laboratory diagnostics. Barriers that hinder better compliance with regulations that govern the use of non-prescribed antimicrobials should be explored. Awareness programmes could be conducted to improve farmers\u2019 awareness of AMR and appropriate disease preventive practices.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-026-05577-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T23:34:22Z","timestamp":1781912062000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Small ruminant production system characteristics and their influence on use, alternatives of, and resistance to antimicrobials in Nigeria"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Mahmoud","family":"Eltholth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodiat Olabisi","family":"Omotoso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ismail Adewuyi","family":"Adeyemo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jadesola Juliana","family":"Ajao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olayiwola Akeem","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nma Bida","family":"Alhaji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Musa Imam","family":"Abubakar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodhiat Oyinlola","family":"Ade-Yusuf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ibrahim Adisa","family":"Raufu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victoria Olusola","family":"Adetunji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Cole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mabrouk","family":"Elsabagh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena Garcia","family":"Fruit\u00f3s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Aris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ismail Ayoade","family":"Odetokun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"5577_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.15547\/ast.2025.03.037","volume":"17","author":"AA Alabi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Alabi AA, Idris-Adeniyi KM, Busari AO, Ayandiran KS, Ajuwon AP. Comparative analysis of indigenous and improved small ruminant management techniques among rural households in Iwo Agricultural Zone, Osun State, Nigeria. Agric Sci Technol. 2025;17:98\u2013112. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15547\/ast.2025.03.037.","journal-title":"Agric Sci Technol"},{"key":"5577_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.4314\/gjass.v21i1.3","volume":"21","author":"T Adetunmbi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Adetunmbi T, Chineke CA. Improving global food systems, human health, and alleviating poverty through small ruminant production: the Nigerian gains. Glob J Agric Sci. 2022;21:13\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4314\/gjass.v21i1.3.","journal-title":"Glob J Agric Sci"},{"key":"5577_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.33003\/jaat.2025.1103.11","volume":"11","author":"AO Ajala","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ajala AO, Adebimpe AT, Ojo KO. Effectiveness of improved management practices among sheep and goat farmers in Southwest Nigeria. FUDMA J Agric Agric Technol. 2025;11:98\u2013106. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.33003\/jaat.2025.1103.11.","journal-title":"FUDMA J Agric Agric Technol"},{"key":"5577_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.96408","volume-title":"Goat Science \u2013 Environment, Health and Economy","author":"N Assan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Assan N. Goat \u2013 a sustainable and holistic approach in addressing triple challenges of gender inequality, climate change effects, food and nutrition insecurity in rural communities of sub-Saharan Africa. Goat Science \u2013 Environment, Health and Economy. London: IntechOpen; 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5772\/intechopen.96408."},{"issue":"1","key":"5577_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.51791\/njap.v31i1.1834","volume":"31","author":"SA Sanni","year":"2004","unstructured":"Sanni SA, Ogungbile AO, Atala TK. Interaction between livestock and crop farming in northern Nigeria: an integrated farming systems approach. Niger J Anim Prod. 2004;31(1):94\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.51791\/njap.v31i1.1834.","journal-title":"Niger J Anim Prod"},{"key":"5577_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"735139","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.735139","volume":"9","author":"CE Nwobodo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nwobodo CE, Nwokolo BC, Iwuchukwu JC, Ohagwu VA, Ozioko RI. Determinants of ruminant farmers\u2019 use of sustainable production practices for climate change adaptation and mitigation in Enugu State, Nigeria. Front Vet Sci. 2022;9:735139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.735139.","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"5577_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.56201\/ijaes.v10.no4.2024.pg1.9","volume":"10","author":"SB Mustapha","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mustapha SB, Shehu H, Nwosu CN, Malabe KM. Small ruminants\u2019 production and their uses among farmers in Nigeria: a review. Int J Agric Earth Sci. 2024;10(4):1\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.56201\/ijaes.v10.no4.2024.pg1.9.","journal-title":"Int J Agric Earth Sci"},{"key":"5577_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"600299","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.600299","volume":"8","author":"AN Asadu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Asadu AN, Chah JM, Attamah CO, Igbokwe EM. Knowledge of hazards associated with urban livestock farming in Southeast Nigeria. Front Vet Sci. 2021;8:600299. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2021.600299.","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"5577_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.4102\/ojvr.v88i1.1899","volume":"88","author":"SE Mantip","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mantip SE, Sigismeau A, Nanven M, Joel A, Qasim AM, Aliyu S, et al. Wide circulation of peste des petits ruminants virus in sheep and goats across Nigeria. Onderstepoort J Vet Res. 2021;88(1):e1\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102\/ojvr.v88i1.1899.","journal-title":"Onderstepoort J Vet Res"},{"key":"5577_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00008","volume":"7","author":"G Limon","year":"2020","unstructured":"Limon G, Gamawa AA, Ahmed AI, Lyons NA, Beard PM. Epidemiological characteristics and economic impact of lumpy skin disease, sheeppox and goatpox among subsistence farmers in northeast Nigeria. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:8. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2020.00008.","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"5577_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2019.638-645","volume":"12","author":"FA Danmallam","year":"2019","unstructured":"Danmallam FA, Pimenov NV. Study on prevalence, clinical presentation, and associated bacterial pathogens of goat mastitis in Bauchi, Plateau, and Edo states, Nigeria. Vet World. 2019;12(5):638\u201345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14202\/vetworld.2019.638-645.","journal-title":"Vet World"},{"key":"5577_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2018.11.001","volume":"6","author":"NB Alhaji","year":"2018","unstructured":"Alhaji NB, Isola TO. Antimicrobial usage by pastoralists in food animals in North-central Nigeria: the associated socio-cultural drivers for antimicrobials misuse and public health implications. One Health. 2018;6:41\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.onehlt.2018.11.001.","journal-title":"One Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"5577_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.51607\/22331360.2024.73.2.129","volume":"73","author":"DT Yoksa","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yoksa DT, Luka Mohzo D, Igbokwe NA, James MN, Igbokwe I. Subclinical mastitis of lactating Sahel goats from urban smallholder herds in Maiduguri, Nigeria: prevalence and intra-mammary infections. Vet (Sarajevo). 2024;73(2):129\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.51607\/22331360.2024.73.2.129.","journal-title":"Vet (Sarajevo)"},{"issue":"6","key":"5577_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14060576","volume":"14","author":"JT Bento","year":"2025","unstructured":"Bento JT, Duarte EL, Votano JR, Nicolau A, Diogo J, Poeta P, et al. The prevalence of antimicrobial resistance genes in the environments of small ruminant farms from central Portugal. Antibiot (Basel). 2025;14(6):576. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics14060576.","journal-title":"Antibiot (Basel)"},{"issue":"5","key":"5577_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1717","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-024-03760-z","volume":"98","author":"MG Bacanl\u0131","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bacanl\u0131 MG. The two faces of antibiotics: an overview of the effects of antibiotic residues in foodstuffs. Arch Toxicol. 2024;98(5):1717\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00204-024-03760-z.","journal-title":"Arch Toxicol"},{"key":"5577_CR16","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill J. Antimicrobial resistance: tackling a crisis for the health and wealth of nations. London: Review on Antimicrobial Resistance; 2014. Available from: https:\/\/amr-review.org\/sites\/default\/files\/AMR%20Review%20Paper%20-%20Tackling%20a%20crisis%20for%20the%20health%20and%20wealth%20of%20nations.pdf."},{"key":"5577_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1605215","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1605215","volume":"12","author":"EM Ibeagha-Awemu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ibeagha-Awemu EM, Bahy R, Zhao X, Cameron M, Li L, Li X-Z, et al. Alternatives to antibiotics for sustainable livestock production in the context of the One Health approach: tackling a common foe. Front Vet Sci. 2025;12:1605215. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1605215.","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"5577_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.51791\/njap.vi.7130","volume":"51","author":"B Tarnongo","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tarnongo B, Egbo ML, Kalla DJU. Effects of vaccination on the prevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in small ruminants in Dutsin-Ma Local Government Area, Katsina State, Nigeria. Niger J Anim Prod. 2024;51(2):1500\u20133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.51791\/njap.vi.7130.","journal-title":"Niger J Anim Prod"},{"key":"5577_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2021.105503","volume":"198","author":"ME Rawlins","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rawlins ME, Limon G, Adedeji AJ, Ijoma SI, Atai RB, Adole JA, et al. Financial impact of sheeppox and goatpox and estimated profitability of vaccination for subsistence farmers in selected northern states of Nigeria. Prev Vet Med. 2022;198:105503. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2021.105503.","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"5577_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.5455\/OVJ.2023.v13.i2.5","volume":"13","author":"F Mata","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mata F, Jesus MS, Pinto RP, Mata A. A meta-analysis of the mastitis vaccination efficacy in dairy cattle. Open Vet J. 2023;13(2):179\u201387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5455\/OVJ.2023.v13.i2.5.","journal-title":"Open Vet J"},{"key":"5577_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-6148-8-134","volume":"8","author":"A Shittu","year":"2012","unstructured":"Shittu A, Abdullahi J, Jibril A, Mohammed AA, Fasina FO. Sub-clinical mastitis and associated risk factors on lactating cows in the Savannah Region of Nigeria. BMC Vet Res. 2012;8:134.","journal-title":"BMC Vet Res"},{"issue":"12","key":"5577_CR22","first-page":"216","volume":"21","author":"JM Chah","year":"2009","unstructured":"Chah JM, Igbokwe EM, Chah KF. Ethno-veterinary medicine used in small ruminant health in the Eastern Guinea Savanna, Nigeria. Livest Res Rural Dev. 2009;21(12):216.","journal-title":"Livest Res Rural Dev"},{"issue":"1","key":"5577_CR23","first-page":"117","volume":"11","author":"FT Adelusi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Adelusi FT, Adedokun SA, Babatunde RO, Eniola O, Ojo-Fakuade FF. Ethno-veterinary practice among small ruminant farmers in Odo-Otin Local Government Area of Osun State, Nigeria. Int J Agric Econ Manag Dev. 2021;11(1):117\u201326.","journal-title":"Int J Agric Econ Manag Dev"},{"key":"5577_CR24","volume-title":"Niger State agricultural policy","author":"Niger State Ministry of Agriculture","year":"2020","unstructured":"Niger State Ministry of Agriculture. Niger State agricultural policy. Minna: Government of Niger State; 2020."},{"key":"5577_CR25","unstructured":"Kwara State Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Kwara State Agricultural Development Programme (KWADP): structure and operational zones. Ilorin: KWADP; No Date. Available from: https:\/\/www.globalscienceresearchjournals.org\/articles\/risk-attitudes-and-management-strategies-of-small--scale-crop-producer-in-kwara-state-nigeria-a-ranking-approach.pd."},{"issue":"1","key":"5577_CR26","first-page":"17","volume":"1","author":"OO Bamikole","year":"2009","unstructured":"Bamikole OO, Ikhatua U. Compilation and adoption of ethno-veterinary medicine, traditional and other management practices by small ruminant farmers in Edo State, Nigeria. J Vet Med Anim Health. 2009;1(1):17\u201322.","journal-title":"J Vet Med Anim Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"5577_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.9734\/ajaar\/2022\/v19i4384","volume":"19","author":"MK Adegun","year":"2022","unstructured":"Adegun MK, Abdu-Raheem KA, Adedapo AO. Effects of nutritional practices and production systems on small ruminants\u2019 health in rural households in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Asian J Adv Agric Res. 2022;19(4):36\u201347.","journal-title":"Asian J Adv Agric Res"},{"key":"5577_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5354292","DOI":"10.1155\/cjid\/5354292","volume":"2025","author":"A Getu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Getu A, Solomon T, Fikre N, Tarekegn AA, Ayenew A, et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antimicrobial resistance and associated factors among healthcare workers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2025;2025:5354292.","journal-title":"Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"5577_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0251327","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0251327","volume":"16","author":"K Wangmo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wangmo K, Dorji T, Pokhrel N, Dorji T, Dorji J, Tenzin T. Knowledge, attitude, and practice on antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance among the veterinarians and para-veterinarians in Bhutan. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(5):e0251327.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"5577_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781036232078.n9","volume-title":"Thematic analysis: a practical guide","author":"V Braun","year":"2021","unstructured":"Braun V, Clarke V. Thematic analysis: a practical guide. Los Angeles: SAGE; 2021."},{"issue":"5","key":"5577_CR31","first-page":"725","volume":"22","author":"A Yusuf","year":"2018","unstructured":"Yusuf A, Aruwayo A, Muhammad I. Characterisation of small ruminant production systems in semi-arid urban areas of Northern Nigeria. J Appl Sci Environ Manage. 2018;22(5):725\u20139.","journal-title":"J Appl Sci Environ Manage"},{"issue":"5","key":"5577_CR32","first-page":"60","volume":"5","author":"FT Adelusi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Adelusi FT, Adedokun SA, Ojo-Fakuade FF, Odewale MO, Babatunde RO. Social factors influencing small ruminant livestock production in Offa Local Government Area of Kwara State. Direct Res J Vet Med Anim Sci. 2020;5(5):60\u20135.","journal-title":"Direct Res J Vet Med Anim Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"5577_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.59331\/njaat.v4i3.798","volume":"4","author":"NG Ishaku","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ishaku NG, Jibril SA, Abu AI, Gukut MY. Comparative analysis of women participation in small ruminants production in Northern Agricultural Zone of Plateau State, Nigeria. Niger J Agric Agric Technol. 2024;4(3):254\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.59331\/njaat.v4i3.798.","journal-title":"Niger J Agric Agric Technol"},{"issue":"6","key":"5577_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.46419\/vs.56.6.11","volume":"56","author":"L Cvetni\u0107","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cvetni\u0107 L, Duvnjak S, Zdelar-Tuk M, Sokolovac \u0160, Tkalec V, Dobrani\u0107 V, et al. Mastitis pathogens in goats and sheep in the Republic of Croatia and their sensitivity to antimicrobials. Veterinarska Stanica. 2025;56(6):697\u2013707.","journal-title":"Veterinarska Stanica"},{"issue":"3","key":"5577_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13794","volume":"68","author":"MD Ahaduzzaman","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ahaduzzaman MD. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP): a systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence in sheep and goats. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2021;68(3):1332\u201344.","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"5577_CR36","unstructured":"Bukar BA, Mabu IM. Common diseases of goats, treatment and preventive measures. In: Kukovics S, editor. Goat science\u2014from keeping to precision production. London: IntechOpen; 2023. Available from: https:\/\/www.intechopen.com\/chapters\/1121807."},{"issue":"12","key":"5577_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2575","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12122575","volume":"12","author":"SH Pereira","year":"2024","unstructured":"Pereira SH, Alves FP, Teixeira SMR. Animal trypanosomiasis: challenges and prospects for new vaccination strategies. Microorganisms. 2024;12(12):2575.","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"issue":"3","key":"5577_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2478\/fv-2025-0021","volume":"69","author":"OG Banwo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Banwo OG, Oluwadare FA, Olakojo TA, Hamman MM, Lateef AM, Agbajelola VI. A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites among ruminants in Nigeria. Folia Vet. 2025;69(3):1\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2478\/fv-2025-0021.","journal-title":"Folia Vet"},{"issue":"1","key":"5577_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.36759\/svj.2021.159","volume":"6","author":"ID Olorunshola","year":"2023","unstructured":"Olorunshola ID, Daodu BO, Omoregie S, Folahan FF, Ogah IJ, Nicholas R, Adegboye D, Peters D. Recent trends and updates of Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in Nigeria. Savannah Vet J. 2023;6(1):18\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.36759\/svj.2021.159.","journal-title":"Savannah Vet J"},{"key":"5577_CR40","unstructured":"Natsa RT. FG tackles viral diseases among livestock, distributes 12.5 m PPR vaccine doses. BusinessDay. 2024. https:\/\/businessday.ng\/news\/article\/fg-tackles-viral-diseases-among-livestock-distributes-12-5m-ppr-vaccine-doses\/. Accessed 30 Jan 2026."},{"key":"5577_CR41","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Peste des Petits Ruminants Global Eradication Programme II & III: through a coordinated, time\u2013bound programme to stop the needless suffering of animals and reduce human poverty. FAO. 2024. https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/server\/api\/core\/bitstreams\/7cc37bdf-c2a3-4874-8504-ef93593d05bb\/content. Accessed 30 Jan 2026."},{"key":"5577_CR42","unstructured":"Black H, Bradley A, Breen J, Green M, Hudson C. The DairyCo Mastitis Control Plan-report on three-year delivery programme 2009\u20132012 [Conference poster]."},{"key":"5577_CR43","unstructured":"Mastitis Control Plan. What is the plan? Mastitis Control Plan. 2009\u20132026. https:\/\/www.mastitiscontrolplan.co.uk\/what-is-the-plan. Accessed 30 Jan 2026."},{"issue":"5","key":"5577_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.15232\/aas.2023-02391","volume":"39","author":"T Aniume","year":"2023","unstructured":"Aniume T, Khanal A, Browning R Jr, Leite-Browning ML, Kilonzo-Nthenge A. Influences of management practices, information sources, and awareness on use of antibiotics among small-scale goat and sheep farmers. Appl Anim Sci. 2023;39(5):317\u201329.","journal-title":"Appl Anim Sci"},{"key":"5577_CR45","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). WOAH list of antimicrobial agents of veterinary importance (January 2025). WOAH. 2025. https:\/\/www.woah.org\/app\/uploads\/2021\/06\/202501-en-woah-trd-list.pdf. Accessed 30 Jan 2026."},{"key":"5577_CR46","unstructured":"World Health Organization. WHO list of medically important antimicrobials: a risk management tool for mitigating antimicrobial resistance due to non-human use. World Health Organization. 2024. https:\/\/cdn.who.int\/media\/docs\/default-source\/gcp\/who-mia-list-2024-lv.pdf. Accessed 30 Jan 2026."},{"issue":"8","key":"5577_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci9080384","volume":"9","author":"KO Akinyemi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Akinyemi KO, Fakorede CO, Amisu KO, Wareth G. Human and animal brucellosis in Nigeria: A systemic review and meta-analysis in the last twenty-one years (2001\u20132021). Veterinary Sci. 2022;9(8):384.","journal-title":"Veterinary Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"5577_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0251596","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0251596","volume":"16","author":"DT Gebeyehu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gebeyehu DT, Bekele D, Mulate B, Gugsa G, Tintagu T. Knowledge, attitude and practice of animal producers towards antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in Oromia zone, north eastern Ethiopia. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(5):e0251596. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0251596.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"1","key":"5577_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s44399-025-00019-5","volume":"1","author":"RR Dewi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Dewi RR, Sihombing JM, Jajere SM, Purba A, Ma\u2019arif I, Hafid H. Knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding antimicrobial resistance, usage and residues among livestock farmers in North Sumatra, Indonesia. BMC Agric. 2025;1(1):19.","journal-title":"BMC Agric"},{"issue":"18","key":"5577_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5649","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1503141112","volume":"112","author":"TP Van Boeckel","year":"2015","unstructured":"Van Boeckel TP, Brower C, Gilbert M, Grenfell BT, Levin SA, Robinson TP, et al. Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112(18):5649\u201354.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"2","key":"5577_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.377","volume":"7","author":"F Verliat","year":"2021","unstructured":"Verliat F, H\u00e9monic A, Chouet S, et al. An efficient cephalosporin stewardship programme in French swine production. Vet Med Sci. 2021;7(2):432\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/vms3.377.","journal-title":"Vet Med Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"5577_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2683","DOI":"10.56294\/saludcyt20262683","volume":"6","author":"W Osman","year":"2026","unstructured":"Osman W, Gibreel HH, Salih RRM, Mirghani M, Alqarni MH, Foudah AI, et al. Antimicrobial effects of aqueous bark extracts of Khaya senegalensis, Azadirachta indica and Eucalyptus camaldulensis against different bacterial pathogens. Salud Cienc Tecnol. 2026;6(1):e2683. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.56294\/saludcyt20262683.","journal-title":"Salud Cienc Tecnol"},{"issue":"7","key":"5577_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1512","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13071512","volume":"13","author":"GI Brito","year":"2025","unstructured":"Brito GI, Cerqueira LA, Perecmanis S, Borges JRJ, de Castro MB, C\u00e2mara ACL. Clinical mastitis in small ruminants referred to a veterinary teaching hospital: 23 cases. Microorganisms. 2025;13(7):1512. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms13071512.","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"issue":"1","key":"5577_CR54","first-page":"17","volume":"22","author":"L Evbuomwan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Evbuomwan L, Chukwuka EP, Obazenu EI, Ilevbare L. Antibacterial activity of Vernonia amygdalina leaf extracts against multidrug resistant bacterial isolates. J Appl Sci Environ Manage. 2018;22(1):17\u201321.","journal-title":"J Appl Sci Environ Manage"},{"key":"5577_CR55","unstructured":"Food Standards Agency. Food safety: farmed meat, farm produce and animal feed. GOV.UK. 2012. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/guidance\/food-safety-farmed-meat-farm-produce-and-animal-feed. Accessed 30 Jan 2026."},{"key":"5577_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.4337\/9781803923673.00086","volume-title":"Elgar concise encyclopedia of animal law","author":"M Esan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Esan M. Overview of Nigerian animal law. In: Schaffner JE, editor. Elgar concise encyclopedia of animal law. Cheltenham (UK): Edward Elgar Publishing; 2025. pp. 303\u20136."},{"key":"5577_CR57","first-page":"53","volume":"16","author":"EA Ayeni","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ayeni EA, Basiri B. Ethnoveterinary survey of plants used in treating livestock among the Fulani people of Girei, Adamawa State, Nigeria. World News Nat Sci. 2018;16:53\u201366.","journal-title":"World News Nat Sci"},{"key":"5577_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.31248\/JASVM2016.038","volume":"1","author":"IS Usman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Usman IS. Ethno-veterinary care amongst the nomadic Fulani herdsmen in southern zone of Adamawa State, Nigeria. J Anim Sci Vet Med. 2016;1:108\u201317.","journal-title":"J Anim Sci Vet Med"},{"key":"5577_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"864813","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.864813","volume":"9","author":"M Eltholth","year":"2022","unstructured":"Eltholth M, Govindaraj G, Das B, Shanabhoga MB, Swamy HM, Thomas A, Cole J, Shome BR, Holmes MA, Moran D. Factors influencing antibiotic prescribing behavior and understanding of antimicrobial resistance among veterinarians in Assam, India. Front Vet Sci. 2022;9:864813. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.864813.","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"5577_CR60","first-page":"53","volume":"6","author":"U Kalu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kalu U, Nwachukwu IM, Apu U. Farmers\u2019 use of improved animal health management technologies in small ruminant production in South East, Nigeria. J Community Commun Res. 2021;6(2):53\u201360.","journal-title":"J Community Commun Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"5577_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/EJMP\/2017\/29321","volume":"18","author":"SA Saganuwan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Saganuwan SA. Ethnoveterinary values of Nigerian medicinal plants: an overview. Eur J Med Plants. 2017;18(4):1\u201335. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.9734\/EJMP\/2017\/29321.","journal-title":"Eur J Med Plants"},{"issue":"20","key":"5577_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.281053","volume":"310","author":"World Medical Association","year":"2013","unstructured":"World Medical Association. World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA. 2013;310(20):2191\u20134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jama.2013.281053.","journal-title":"JAMA"}],"container-title":["BMC Veterinary Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12917-026-05577-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12917-026-05577-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12917-026-05577-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T12:51:20Z","timestamp":1791982280000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12917-026-05577-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5577"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12917-026-05577-7","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-9085231\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1746-6148"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1746-6148","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"10 March 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 May 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 June 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the University of Ilorin Ethical Review Committee (UERC) (UERC Approval Number: UERC\/ASN\/2024\/2915) and from the Royal Holloway University of London Research Ethics Committee (Application ID 4210). Data from research participants was ethically collected in accordance with the declaration of Helsinki [\n                      \n                      ]. Informed consent was obtained in verbal and written forms from all survey and focus group participants. Confidentiality assurances were also communicated, with a clear option to opt out at any time during survey data collection and focus group discussions.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Participants were made fully aware that their responses would be published and informed consent in this regard was obtained prior to their enrolment in the study.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"602"}}