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This hyperplastic response can impair implant function and clinical outcomes, yet the underlying immunological mechanisms remain poorly understood.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In a cohort of EBV patients (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009147), we developed an optical scaling and scoring system to classify the severity of granulation tissue in relation to clinical outcomes. Based on this system, we prospectively collected endobronchial biopsies from EBV (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200941) and stent patients (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200911) for immune and structural profiling across different severity grades. Granulation tissue was analysed by histology, immunofluorescence, and flow cytometry.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Using the optical scoring system, almost 75% of EBV patients developed hyperplastic granulation tissue (34.7% moderate, 38.8% severe). In many moderate to severe cases, valve dysfunction, dislocation, and the need for revision was observed. Increasing severity of granulation tissue was associated with profound extracellular matrix (ECM) disruption and increased immune cell infiltration. Immunophenotyping revealed elevated neutrophils and regulatory T cells (Tregs) with a central memory phenotype. Macrophages in patients with severe granulation tissue formation showed a shift toward a CD163\n                      <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                      M2-like polarisation. Structural analyses demonstrated a loss of epithelial integrity and an upregulation of ECM remodelling markers, fibronectin, and tenascin C.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study provides the first systematic immune-morphological classification of airway granulation tissue following EBV therapy. Our findings revealed distinct immune and ECM signatures associated with clinical complications identify potential mechanisms and therapeutic targets, particularly relevant for COPD patients in whom current anti-inflammatory strategies are insufficient.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-025-03480-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,7]],"date-time":"2026-01-07T09:12:49Z","timestamp":1767777169000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Immunophenotypic and structural signatures of severe granulation tissue in airway implant patients"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Kimberly","family":"Barbet","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Birte","family":"Schwarz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anja Lena","family":"Thiebes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anja Elisabeth","family":"Luengen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Taube","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michaela","family":"Schedel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaid","family":"Darwiche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,7]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"3480_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1159\/000530421","volume":"102","author":"L Li","year":"2023","unstructured":"Li L, Zhang X, Shi J, Wang Y, Chen H, Liu F, et al. 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