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Dietary glycemic index (GI), glycemic load (GL), and intake of higher- (\u2265\u200955) and low-GI (&lt;\u200955) foods, dietary fiber, and total sugar were derived from a validated food frequency questionnaire and cross-sectionally associated with cardiovascular risk factors (blood lipids, subclinical inflammation, blood pressure, fatty liver index) using multivariable linear regression analysis for subtypes with prevalences\u2009\u2265\u200910%.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Intake of carbohydrate quality parameters was broadly comparable between the subtypes. Among SAID higher total sugar intake was associated with lower HDL-cholesterol (\u00df (95% CI) relative change per 1 SD increment: \u2212\u00a03.4% (\u2212\u00a06.7; \u2212\u00a00.1)). No clear associations were seen among MOD. Among MARD, a higher dietary GL and higher-GI carbohydrate intake were associated with higher serum triglycerides (10.9% (2.4; 20.1), 12.4% (3.9; 21.5)) and fatty liver index (absolute change: 0.18 (0.06; 0.31), 0.17 (0.05; 0.28)) and lower HDL-cholesterol (\u2212\u00a04.1% (\u2212\u00a07.6; \u2212\u00a00.4), \u2212\u00a04.4% (\u2212\u00a07.8; \u2212\u00a00.8)), whilst higher intake of low-GI carbohydrates and dietary fiber were associated with lower high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (\u2212\u00a016.0% (\u2212\u00a025.7; \u2212\u00a05.1), \u2212\u00a013.9% (\u2212\u00a024.2; \u2212\u00a02.2)).<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Associations of carbohydrate quality parameters with blood lipids, subclinical inflammation, and fatty liver index differed between diabetes subtypes. However, evidence is too preliminary to derive subtype-specific recommendations.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Trial registration<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT01055093.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12933-025-02580-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,6]],"date-time":"2025-02-06T17:59:46Z","timestamp":1738864786000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Associations of carbohydrate quality and cardiovascular risk factors vary among diabetes subtypes"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Katharina S.","family":"Weber","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabrina","family":"Schlesinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janina","family":"Goletzke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Klaus","family":"Stra\u00dfburger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oana-Patricia","family":"Zaharia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sandra","family":"Trenkamp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Wagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Lieb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anette E.","family":"Buyken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Roden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Herder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"for the GDS group","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M.","family":"Roden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H.","family":"Al-Hasani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"B.","family":"Belgardt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G.","family":"B\u00f6nhof","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G.","family":"Geerling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R.","family":"Guthoff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C.","family":"Herder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Icks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"K.","family":"Jandeleit-Dahm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J.","family":"Kotzka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"O.","family":"Ku\u00df","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"E.","family":"Lammert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"W.","family":"Rathmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S.","family":"Schlesinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"V.","family":"Schrauwen-Hinderling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J.","family":"Szendroedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S.","family":"Trenkamp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R.","family":"Wagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"2580_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee: Nuha A ElSayed, Grazia Aleppo, Raveendhara R Bannuru, Dennis Bruemmer, Billy S Collins, Laya Ekhlaspour et al. 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Public Health Nutr. 2002;5(4):567\u201387.","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr"},{"issue":"1","key":"2580_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/138.1.226S","volume":"138","author":"JR Herbert","year":"2008","unstructured":"Herbert JR, Hurley TG, Peterson KE, Resnicow K, Thompso FE, Yaroch AL, et al. Social desirability trait influences on self-reported dietary measures among diverse participants in a multicenter multiple risk factor trial. J Nutr. 2008;138(1):226S-234S.","journal-title":"J Nutr"}],"container-title":["Cardiovascular Diabetology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12933-025-02580-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12933-025-02580-4\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12933-025-02580-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,6]],"date-time":"2025-02-06T17:59:56Z","timestamp":1738864796000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/cardiab.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12933-025-02580-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,6]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["2580"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12933-025-02580-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["1475-2840"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1475-2840","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"17 October 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 January 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 February 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The study protocol has been approved by the ethics board of Heinrich Heine University. The study is conducted according to the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. All participants gave written informed consent.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"A.E.B. is a member of the International Carbohydrate Quality Consortium (ICQC), a member of the Scientific committee of the transnational governance of the Nutri-Score system, a member of the Scientific Advisory Council for Agricultural Policy, Nutrition and Consumer Health Protection, Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture Germany and a co-author of the popular cookbook \u201cNordisch abnehmen\u201d. Her research is supported by grants from the German Research Foundation (BU 1807\/3-2 & BU 1807\/8-1), and the European Joint Programming Initiative \u201cA Healthy Diet for a Healthy Life\u201d and from the ERA-NET Cofund HDHL INTIMIC (GA No. 727565 of the EU Horizon 2020 Research and InnovationProgramme). M.R. received fees consulting, lecturing or serving on advisory boards from Astra Zeneca, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Echosens, Eli Lilly, Merck-MSD, Madrigal, Novo Nordisk, Madrigal and Target RWE and has performed investigator-initiated research with support from Boehringer-Ingelheim, Novo Nordisk and Nutricia\/Danone to the DDZ. The research of M.R. is supported by grants from the German Research Foundation (DFG; RTG\/GRK 2576), the European Community (HORIZON-HLTH-2022-STAYHLTH-02-01: Panel A) to the INTERCEPT-T2D consortium, BMG, MKW, BMBF and the Schmutzler-Stiftung. R.W. reports lecture fees from Novo Nordisk, Sanofi-Aventis, Boehringer-Ingelheim and Eli Lilly. He served on the advisory board for Akcea Therapeutics, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly and NovoNordisk. None of these aforementioned relationships\/activities are related to the content of this manuscript. J.G., C.H., W.L., K.S.W., S.S., K.S., S.T., and O.P.Z. declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interest"}}],"article-number":"53"}}