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Although\n                      <jats:italic>Pseudomonas putida<\/jats:italic>\n                      KT2440 is considered a robust and metabolically versatile production host, it remains unclear which of these constraint layers primarily limits heterologous terpenoid production in this organism. Here, lycopene biosynthesis was used as a model system to systematically dissect these three potential sources of metabolic burden.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A capacity-monitoring system revealed no clear reduction in transcriptional or translational capacity across the tested strains and cultivation conditions, indicating that general gene expression capacity was not the primary limiting factor. Instead, lycopene production depended strongly on promoter architecture and plasmid backbone, showing that regulatory design shaped pathway performance. Enhancing precursor supply by introducing a heterologous mevalonate (MVA) pathway substantially increased product titres, identifying precursor availability from the native MEP pathway as the dominant bottleneck. This conclusion was independently supported by exogenous mevalonate supplementation, which further increased lycopene accumulation but also revealed saturation at higher concentrations, suggesting that downstream pathway balance or enzyme capacity became limiting once precursor supply was relieved. Under controlled bioreactor conditions, lycopene titres increased from approximately 1\u00a0mg\/L to nearly 25\u00a0mg\/L, indicating that process conditions further modulate production performance, suggesting an additional contribution of process-dependent energy and redox constraints.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Metabolic burden during heterologous lycopene production in\n                      <jats:italic>P. putida<\/jats:italic>\n                      is governed primarily by precursor availability rather than by limitations in general gene expression capacity. Regulatory properties of the vector system strongly influence pathway performance, while controlled cultivation conditions can further improve production by alleviating additional process-dependent constraints. Together, these findings provide a systematic framework for distinguishing constraint layers and guiding the optimisation of heterologous terpenoid production systems.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-026-03108-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T15:55:22Z","timestamp":1788364522000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Characterisation of metabolic burden in Pseudomonas putida reveals precursor limitation in heterologous lycopene production"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Carina","family":"Meiners","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucas","family":"Hermann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mishela","family":"Stoja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Kremling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8334-353X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katharina","family":"Pfl\u00fcger-Grau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"3108_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"827704","DOI":"10.3389\/ffunb.2022.827704","volume":"3","author":"LLB Kastberg","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kastberg LLB, Ard R, Jensen MK, Workman CT. 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