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The effectiveness of this procedure for infection surveillance and malaria control may be limited by a relatively high parasitaemia detection threshold. Persons with microscopically undetectable infections may go untreated, contributing to ongoing transmission to mosquito vectors. The purpose of this study was to determine the magnitude and determinants of undiagnosed submicroscopic<jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>infections in a rural area of western Kenya.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>A health facility-based survey was conducted, and 367 patients seeking treatment for symptoms consistent with uncomplicated malaria in Homa Bay County were enrolled. The frequency of submicroscopic<jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>infection was measured by comparing the prevalence of infection based on light microscopic inspection of thick blood smears versus real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) targeting<jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>18S rRNA gene. Long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN) use, participation in nocturnal outdoor activities, and gender were considered as potential determinants of submicroscopic infections.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Microscopic inspection of blood smears was positive for asexual<jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>parasites in 14.7% (54\/367) of cases. All of these samples were confirmed by RT-PCR. 35.8% (112\/313) of blood smear negative cases were positive by RT-PCR, i.e., submicroscopic infection, resulting in an overall prevalence by RT-PCR alone of 45.2% compared to 14.7% for blood smear alone. Females had a higher prevalence of submicroscopic infections (35.6% or 72 out of 202 individuals, 95% CI 28.9\u201342.3) compared to males (24.2%, 40 of 165 individuals, 95% CI 17.6\u201330.8). The risk of submicroscopic infections in LLIN users was about half that of non-LLIN users (OR\u2009=\u20090.59). There was no difference in the prevalence of submicroscopic infections of study participants who were active in nocturnal outdoor activities versus those who were not active (OR\u2009=\u20090.91). Patients who participated in nocturnal outdoor activities and use LLINs while indoors had a slightly higher risk of submicroscopic infection than those who did not use LLINs (OR\u2009=\u20091.48).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Microscopic inspection of blood smears from persons with malaria symptoms for asexual stage<jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>should be supplemented by more sensitive diagnostic tests in order to reduce ongoing transmission of<jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>parasites to local mosquito vectors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-04012-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,20]],"date-time":"2021-12-20T10:03:12Z","timestamp":1639994592000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Hyper-prevalence of submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum infections in a rural area of western Kenya with declining malaria cases"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4510-8344","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kevin O.","family":"Ochwedo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Collince J.","family":"Omondi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Edwin O.","family":"Magomere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julius O.","family":"Olumeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Isaiah","family":"Debrah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shirley A.","family":"Onyango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pauline W.","family":"Orondo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Benyl M.","family":"Ondeto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Harrysone E.","family":"Atieli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sidney O.","family":"Ogolla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Githure","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Antony C. 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Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021."}],"container-title":["Malaria Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-021-04012-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12936-021-04012-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-021-04012-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,14]],"date-time":"2024-09-14T19:35:32Z","timestamp":1726342532000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/malariajournal.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12936-021-04012-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,20]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4012"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-021-04012-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["1475-2875"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1475-2875","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 August 2021","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 December 2021","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 December 2021","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Ethical approval for this study (Reference No. 00456) was obtained from Maseno University Ethical Review Committee (MUERC) and University of California, Irvine Institutional Review Board (HS#2017\u20133512). All volunteers or their guardians gave written informed consent to participate in providing blood samples.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent for participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"Authors have no conflict of interest to disclose.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"472"}}