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Parasites survive the dry season within some individuals who experience prolonged carriage of parasites and are thought to \u2018seed\u2019 infection in the next transmission season.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Dry season carriers and their role in the subsequent transmission season are characterized using a combination of mathematical simulations and data analysis of previously described data from a longitudinal study in Mali of individuals aged 3\u00a0months\u201312\u00a0years (n\u2009=\u2009579).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Simulating the life-history of individuals experiencing repeated exposure to infection predicts that dry season carriage is more likely in the oldest, most exposed and most immune individuals. This hypothesis is supported by the data from Mali, which shows that carriers are significantly older, experience a higher biting rate at the beginning of the transmission season and develop clinical malaria later than non-carriers. Further, since the most exposed individuals in a community are most likely to be dry season carriers, this is predicted to enable a more than twofold faster spread of parasites into the mosquito population at the start of the subsequent wet season.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Carriage of malaria parasites over the months-long dry season in Mali is most likely in the older, more exposed and more immune children. These children may act as super-spreaders facilitating the fast spread of parasites at the beginning of the next transmission season.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04461-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]],"date-time":"2023-02-03T11:04:12Z","timestamp":1675422252000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Evidence for exposure dependent carriage of malaria parasites across the dry season: modelling analysis of longitudinal data"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Eva","family":"Stadler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deborah","family":"Cromer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samson","family":"Ogunlade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aissata","family":"Ongoiba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Safiatou","family":"Doumbo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kassoum","family":"Kayentao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boubacar","family":"Traore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter D.","family":"Crompton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Portugal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miles P.","family":"Davenport","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David S.","family":"Khoury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"4461_CR1","volume-title":"World Malaria Report 2021","author":"WHO","year":"2021","unstructured":"WHO. 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Determinants of MDA impact and designing MDAs towards malaria elimination. eLife. 2020;9:e51773.","journal-title":"eLife"}],"container-title":["Malaria Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-023-04461-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12936-023-04461-1\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-023-04461-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,4]],"date-time":"2023-02-04T16:05:13Z","timestamp":1675526713000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/malariajournal.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12936-023-04461-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4461"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-023-04461-1","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1101\/2022.04.28.22274398","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1475-2875"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1475-2875","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"20 July 2022","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 January 2023","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 February 2023","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This work used previously described data from a longitudinal study conducted in Mali in 2012 [\n                      \n                      ,\n                      \n                      ]. The ethics committee of the Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Dentistry at the University of Sciences, Techniques and Technology of Bamako, and the Institutional Review Board of NIAID NIH approved the study (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01322581). Written, informed consent was obtained from the parents or guardians of participating children or from adult participants.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"42"}}