{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T13:15:55Z","timestamp":1792502155921,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]],"date-time":"2025-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751328000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]],"date-time":"2025-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751328000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100019778","name":"President's Malaria Initiative","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["7200AA20CA00031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["7200AA20CA00031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100019778","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["INV-043942"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-043942"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Malar J"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Rapid diagnostic test (RDT) results are the foundation of both case management and malaria surveillance across sub-Saharan Africa. However, RDT results may be misrecorded in health facility registers by healthcare workers (HCWs), either unintentionally or deliberately, for example, to justify treatment based on clinical judgment. A multi-country evaluation was conducted to quantify the extent of RDT misrecording and identify factors associated with recording and reporting accuracy. This report summarizes the study\u2019s methods, key findings, and implications for improving malaria RDT data quality.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A mixed-methods observational study was implemented in Benin, C\u00f4te d'Ivoire, Nigeria, and Uganda in 2023. At participating health facilities, images of RDTs were captured at the point of care and later reviewed by a trained, external panel. Agreement between the panel\u2019s interpretation and the result recorded in the register was assessed using weighted mean Cohen\u2019s kappa (\u03ba). Secondary objectives included identifying factors associated with inaccurate recording, assessing the durability of RDT results after 1\u00a0month of storage, evaluating accuracy of data obtained from the District Health Information System 2 (DHIS2), and measuring the observer effect of the start of the study on test positivity rates (TPR) reported to DHIS2.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A total of 102,337 RDT results was observed. Agreement between register-recorded results and the external panel was high, ranging from \u03ba\u2009=\u20090.80 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.75, 0.85) in Nigeria to \u03ba\u2009=\u20090.88 (95% CI 0.84, 0.92) in Benin. HCWs were more likely to misrecord results as positive (range: 5.1\u20137.3%) than negative (range: 0.7\u20133.7%), and patient age was associated with misrecording results in all countries except Nigeria. After the study began in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire, TPRs reported from the DHIS2 declined significantly more in study than control facilities (rate ratio: 0.80, 95% CI 0.76, 0.84).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Although HCWs generally recorded RDT results accurately, the disproportionately higher proportion of results misrecorded as positive raises concern about possible intentional misreporting. The observed TPR decrease after study onset in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire suggests some HCWs can be motivated to reduce misrecording and improve the quality of malaria case management and surveillance data.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05459-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]],"date-time":"2025-07-01T09:09:55Z","timestamp":1751360995000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Assessing the accuracy of the recording and reporting of malaria rapid diagnostic test results in four African countries: methods and key results"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Kim A.","family":"Lindblade","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arthur","family":"Mpimbaza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Corine","family":"Ngufor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William","family":"Yavo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sunday","family":"Atobatele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ese","family":"Akpiroroh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abibatou","family":"Konat\u00e9-Tour\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Idelphonse","family":"Ahogni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nelson","family":"Ssewante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bosco","family":"Agaba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Augustin","family":"Kpemasse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jacques","family":"Agnon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Onyebuchi","family":"Okoro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Godwin","family":"Ntadom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antoine","family":"Tanoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cyriaque","family":"Affoukou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jimmy","family":"Opigo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shawna","family":"Cooper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John J.","family":"Aponte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin","family":"Griffith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Radina","family":"Soebiyanto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Humes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"5459_CR1","volume-title":"World malaria report 2024","author":"WHO","year":"2024","unstructured":"WHO. World malaria report 2024. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2024."},{"key":"5459_CR2","volume-title":"Guidelines for malaria (30 November 2024)","author":"WHO","year":"2024","unstructured":"WHO. Guidelines for malaria (30 November 2024). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2024."},{"key":"5459_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1218-5","volume":"15","author":"AN Kabaghe","year":"2016","unstructured":"Kabaghe AN, Visser BJ, Spijker R, Phiri KS, Grobusch MP, van Vugt M. Health workers\u2019 compliance to rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) to guide malaria treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Malar J. 2016;15:163.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S86","DOI":"10.1038\/nature16039","volume":"528","author":"L Wu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wu L, van den Hoogen LL, Slater H, Walker PGT, Ghani AC, Drakeley CJ, et al. Comparison of diagnostics for the detection of asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum infections to inform control and elimination strategies. Nature. 2015;528:S86-93.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"5459_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-024-04904-3","volume":"23","author":"B Mekonen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mekonen B, Dugassa S, Feleke SM, Dufera B, Gidisa B, Adamu A, et al. Widespread pfhrp2\/3 deletions and HRP2-based false-negative results in southern Ethiopia. Malar J. 2024;23:108.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-018-2371-9","volume":"17","author":"U Dalrymple","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dalrymple U, Arambepola R, Gething PW, Cameron E. How long do rapid diagnostic tests remain positive after anti-malarial treatment? Malar J. 2018;17:228.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2906.221016","volume":"29","author":"R Sendor","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sendor R, Mitchell CL, Chacky F, Mohamed A, Mhamilawa LE, Molteni F, et al. Similar prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum and non\u2013P. falciparum malaria infections among schoolchildren, Tanzania. Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29:1143.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"5459_CR8","first-page":"4818","volume":"19","author":"K Baltzell","year":"2019","unstructured":"Baltzell K, Kortz TB, Scarr E, Blair A, Mguntha A, Bandawe G, et al. \u201cNot all fevers are malaria\u201d: a mixed methods study of non-malarial fever management in rural southern Malawi. Rural Remote Health. 2019;19:4818.","journal-title":"Rural Remote Health"},{"key":"5459_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-015-1020-9","volume":"15","author":"R Altaras","year":"2016","unstructured":"Altaras R, Nuwa A, Agaba B, Streat E, Tibenderana JK, Strachan CE. Why do health workers give anti-malarials to patients with negative rapid test results? A qualitative study at rural health facilities in western Uganda. Malar J. 2016;15:23.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.23-0359","volume":"110","author":"D Koko","year":"2024","unstructured":"Koko D, Arouna D, Bernard Y-M, Ba T, Mostel J, Abdou Y, et al. How outreach training and supportive supervision (OTSS) affect health facility readiness and health-care worker competency to prevent and treat malaria in Niger: a secondary analysis of OTSS data. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2024;110:50\u20135.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"5459_CR11","unstructured":"USAID Global Health Supply Chain Program. EUV Survey Question Guide. Washington, DC: USAID Global Health Supply Chain Program. 2020. https:\/\/www.ghsupplychain.org\/euv-survey-question-guide. Accessed 20 May 2025."},{"key":"5459_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0279712","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0279712","volume":"18","author":"EE Agbemafle","year":"2023","unstructured":"Agbemafle EE, Addo-Lartey A, Odikro MA, Frimpong JA, Kubio C, Ameme DK, et al. Adherence to the test, treat and track strategy for malaria control among prescribers, Mfantseman Municipality, Central Region. Ghana PLoS ONE. 2023;18:e0279712.","journal-title":"Ghana PLoS ONE"},{"key":"5459_CR13","unstructured":"USAID DELIVER Project. Guidelines for Managing the Malaria Supply Chain: A Companion to the Logistics Handbook. Arlington, VA: USAID DELIVER Project. 2011. https:\/\/ghsupplychain.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-07\/GuidManaMalariaSC_0.pdf. Accessed 20 May 2025."},{"key":"5459_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.19-0150","volume":"101","author":"E Davlantes","year":"2019","unstructured":"Davlantes E, Camara A, Guilavogui T, Fofana A, Balde M, Diallo T, et al. Quality of malaria case management and reporting at public health facilities in six health districts in Guinea, 2018. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2019;101:148\u201356.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"5459_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e92782","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0092782","volume":"9","author":"D Zurovac","year":"2014","unstructured":"Zurovac D, Githinji S, Memusi D, Kigen S, Machini B, Muturi A, et al. Major improvements in the quality of malaria case-management under the \u201cTest and Treat\u201d policy in Kenya. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e92782.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"5459_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-017-1843-7","volume":"16","author":"MM Plucinski","year":"2017","unstructured":"Plucinski MM, Ferreira M, Ferreira CM, Burns J, Gaparayi P, Jo\u00e3o L, et al. Evaluating malaria case management at public health facilities in two provinces in Angola. Malar J. 2017;16:186.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR17","volume-title":"World malaria report 2023","author":"WHO","year":"2023","unstructured":"WHO. World malaria report 2023. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023."},{"key":"5459_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-018-2358-6","volume":"17","author":"MR Boyce","year":"2018","unstructured":"Boyce MR, Menya D, Turner EL, Laktabai J, Prudhomme-O\u2019Meara W. Evaluation of malaria rapid diagnostic test (RDT) use by community health workers: a longitudinal study in western Kenya. Malar J. 2018;17:206.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1191\/0962280204sm365ra","volume":"13","author":"MM Shoukri","year":"2004","unstructured":"Shoukri MM, Asyali MH, Donner A. Sample size requirements for the design of reliability study: review and new results. Stat Methods Med Res. 2004;13:251\u201371.","journal-title":"Stat Methods Med Res"},{"key":"5459_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-018-2500-5","volume":"17","author":"DA Pfeffer","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pfeffer DA, Lucas TCD, May D, Harris J, Rozier J, Twohig KA, et al. malariaAtlas: an R interface to global malariometric data hosted by the Malaria Atlas Project. Malar J. 2018;17:352.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s10742-011-0077-3","volume":"11","author":"S Sun","year":"2011","unstructured":"Sun S. Meta-analysis of Cohen\u2019s kappa. Health Serv Outcomes Res Methodol. 2011;11:145\u201363.","journal-title":"Health Serv Outcomes Res Methodol"},{"key":"5459_CR22","unstructured":"Gamer, M, Lemon, J, Fellows, I, Singh, P. Package \u201cirr\u201d. Hamburg, Germany: University of Hamburg. https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/irr\/irr.pdf. Accessed 04 Apr 2025."},{"key":"5459_CR23","unstructured":"Dorai-Raj, S. Package \u201cbinom\u201d. 2022. https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/binom\/binom.pdf. Accessed 20 May 2025."},{"key":"5459_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.24-0429","volume":"112","author":"S Das","year":"2024","unstructured":"Das S, Feltrer AR, Rutagwera M-RI, Lungu C, Malama P, Monde M, et al. Documenting Trends in malaria data reporting accuracy using routine data quality audits in Zambia, 2015\u20132022. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2024;112:274\u201385.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"5459_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9868.2008.00700.x","volume":"71","author":"H Rue","year":"2009","unstructured":"Rue H, Martino S, Chopin N. Approximate Bayesian inference for latent Gaussian models by using integrated nested Laplace approximations. J R Stat Soc Ser B Stat Methodol. 2009;71:319\u201392.","journal-title":"J R Stat Soc Ser B Stat Methodol"},{"key":"5459_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e012973","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-012973","volume":"7","author":"HED Burchett","year":"2017","unstructured":"Burchett HED, Leurent B, Baiden F, Baltzell K, Bj\u00f6rkman A, Bruxvoort K, et al. Improving prescribing practices with rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs): synthesis of 10 studies to explore reasons for variation in malaria RDT uptake and adherence. BMJ Open. 2017;7:e012973.","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"5459_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1174-0","volume":"15","author":"NY Boadu","year":"2016","unstructured":"Boadu NY, Amuasi J, Ansong D, Einsiedel E, Menon D, Yanow SK. Challenges with implementing malaria rapid diagnostic tests at primary care facilities in a Ghanaian district: a qualitative study. Malar J. 2016;15:126.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-13-502","volume":"13","author":"E Diggle","year":"2014","unstructured":"Diggle E, Asgary R, Gore-Langton G, Nahashon E, Mungai J, Harrison R, et al. Perceptions of malaria and acceptance of rapid diagnostic tests and related treatment practises among community members and health care providers in Greater Garissa, North Eastern Province. Kenya Malar J. 2014;13:502.","journal-title":"Kenya Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0223869","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0223869","volume":"14","author":"IF Obi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Obi IF, Sabitu K, Olorukooba A, Adebowale AS, Usman R, Nwokoro U, et al. Health workers\u2019 perception of malaria rapid diagnostic test and factors influencing compliance with test results in Ebonyi state. Nigeria PLoS ONE. 2019;14:e0223869.","journal-title":"Nigeria PLoS ONE"},{"key":"5459_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.11604\/pamj.2018.30.229.13231","volume":"30","author":"AO Akinyode","year":"2018","unstructured":"Akinyode AO, Ajayi IO, Ibrahim MS, Akinyemi JO, Ajumobi OO. Practice of antimalarial prescription to patients with negative rapid test results and associated factors among health workers in Oyo State, Nigeria. Pan Afr Med J. 2018;30:229.","journal-title":"Pan Afr Med J"},{"key":"5459_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-3094-2","volume":"19","author":"AM Na\u2019uzo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Na\u2019uzo AM, Tukur D, Sufiyan MB, Stephen AA, Ajayi I, Bamgboye E, et al. Adherence to malaria rapid diagnostic test result among healthcare workers in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria. Malar J. 2020;19:2.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ngufor C, Ahogni I. Documentation of the monthly validation of malaria rapid diagnostic test (RDTs) results in Benin. Zenodo. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.15570892 Style APA. Accessed 5 June 2025.","DOI":"10.5281\/zenodo.15570892"},{"key":"5459_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05352-3","volume":"24","author":"EO Ayandipo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ayandipo EO, Fagbola M, Gbolade A, Okpokpolom JT, Ojo A, Abikoye O, et al. Decline in malaria test positivity rates following capacity building and archiving of malaria rapid diagnostic test cassettes in Oyo State, Nigeria: a retrospective review of records. Malar J. 2025;24:132.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5459_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-03573-2","volume":"20","author":"T Visser","year":"2021","unstructured":"Visser T, Ramachandra S, Pothin E, Jacobs J, Cunningham J, Menach AL, et al. A comparative evaluation of mobile medical APPS (MMAS) for reading and interpreting malaria rapid diagnostic tests. Malar J. 2021;20:39.","journal-title":"Malar J"}],"container-title":["Malaria Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05459-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05459-7\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05459-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]],"date-time":"2025-07-01T09:09:59Z","timestamp":1751360999000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/malariajournal.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05459-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5459"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05459-7","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-6577975\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1475-2875"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1475-2875","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2 May 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 June 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 July 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Ethical approval was obtained from: the Comit\u00e9 National d\u2019Ethique pour la Recherche en Sant\u00e9 (Benin); the Comit\u00e9 National d\u2019Ethique des Sciences de la Vie et de la Sant\u00e9 (C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire); the National Health Research Ethics Committee (Nigeria); the Oyo State Health Research Ethics Committee (Nigeria); the Sokoto State Health Research Ethics Committee (Nigeria); the Uganda National Council on Science and Technology (Uganda); the Vector Control Division Research and Ethics Committee (Uganda); and the WGC IRB in the USA. All participants provided written, informed consent to participate.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"206"}}