{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T22:11:49Z","timestamp":1767046309554,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766102400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766966400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":10,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["INV-036442"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-036442"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Malar J"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Genotyping\n                      <jats:italic>Plasmodium falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      polymorphic merozoite genes to describe parasite genetic diversity and the complexity of malaria infections (COI) is routinely used to assess the effectiveness of malaria control interventions. They are also utilized in anti-malarial drug therapeutic efficacy studies (TES) to differentiate recrudescent parasites from new infections. However, these polymorphic genes are usually under selection. Therefore, neutral microsatellite markers are preferred as they are also easier to genotype. The current study investigated the genetic diversity and COI using the poly-\u03b1 microsatellite marker to provide background information on circulating genotypes before its applied to TES in Kenya.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Dried blood spot (DBS) samples were obtained from 93 participants from a TES in Busia County in 2016 and 92 participants from a malaria monitoring study conducted in Kilifi in 2020. Genotyping of the poly-\u03b1 microsatellite was done by PCR, capillary electrophoresis and the fragment data analysed using GeneMarker.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      About 97% and 87% of the samples from Busia and Kilifi, respectively, were successfully genotyped. The infections in Busia were mainly polyclonal (80%) with a significantly higher mean COI of 2.9 (p\u2009&lt;\u20090.0001), while those in Kilifi were mostly monoclonal (52.5%) with a mean COI of 1.7. Despite on average a younger population and lower parasite density in Busia, both regions had similar expected heterozygosity (\n                      <jats:italic>He<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) (Busia\u2009=\u20090.92; Kilifi\u2009=\u20090.90) while Kilifi recorded a slightly lower number of effective alleles (Ne) (Kilifi\u2009=\u20099.3; Busia\u2009=\u200910.8).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The poly-\u03b1 microsatellite genotyping revealed high genetic diversity of malaria parasites in Busia and Kilifi. These findings define the genotypes (fragment sizes) observed in the two Kenyan populations, providing a proof of concept for the utility of poly-\u03b1 in TES studies as a molecular correction tool and for the evaluation of the effectiveness of malaria interventions in Kenya.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05745-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T16:14:03Z","timestamp":1766160843000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Characterizing Plasmodium falciparum genetic diversity and complexity of infections in clinical malaria infections in Western and Coastal Kenya using the poly-alpha microsatellite marker"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Nicole A.","family":"Abade","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cavin","family":"Mgawe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Leonard","family":"Ndwiga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kelvin M.","family":"Kimenyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lynette Isabella","family":"Ochola\u2011Oyier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"5745_CR1","volume-title":"World malaria report 2024","author":"WHO","year":"2024","unstructured":"WHO. World malaria report 2024. World Health Organization; 2024."},{"key":"5745_CR2","volume-title":"Kenya malaria indicator survey 2020","author":"Kenya National Bureau of Statistics","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. Kenya malaria indicator survey 2020. Kenya: Nairobi; 2020."},{"key":"5745_CR3","unstructured":"PMI. President\u2019s malaria initiative - Kenya country profile. 2024. https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/kenya\/presidents-malaria-initiative-kenya-country-profile-last-updated-06202023"},{"key":"5745_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-2844-5","volume":"18","author":"TO Apinjoh","year":"2019","unstructured":"Apinjoh TO, Ouattara A, Titanji VPK, Djimde A, Amambua-Ngwa A. Genetic diversity and drug resistance surveillance of Plasmodium falciparum for malaria elimination: is there an ideal tool for resource-limited sub-Saharan Africa? Malar J. 2019;18:217.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5745_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1008453","volume":"15","author":"X Li","year":"2019","unstructured":"Li X, Kumar S, McDew-White M, Haile M, Cheeseman IH, Emrich S, et al. Genetic mapping of fitness determinants across the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum life cycle. PLoS Genet. 2019;15:e1008453.","journal-title":"PLoS Genet"},{"key":"5745_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3299700","volume":"236","author":"D Walliker","year":"1987","unstructured":"Walliker D, Quakyi IA, Wellems TE, McCutchan TF, Szarfman A, London WT, et al. Genetic analysis of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Science. 1987;236:1661\u20136.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"5745_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.12.001","volume":"27","author":"SC Nkhoma","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nkhoma SC, Trevino SG, Gorena KM, Nair S, Khoswe S, Jett C, et al. Co-transmission of related malaria parasite lineages shapes within-host parasite diversity. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27:93-103.e4.","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"5745_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.zool.2016.06.003","volume":"119","author":"J Bose","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bose J, Kloesener MH, Schulte RD. Multiple-genotype infections and their complex effect on virulence. Zoology. 2016;119:339\u201349.","journal-title":"Zoology"},{"key":"5745_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2189","DOI":"10.1111\/evo.13843","volume":"73","author":"PA Clay","year":"2019","unstructured":"Clay PA, Rudolf VHW. How parasite interaction strategies alter virulence evolution in multi-parasite communities. Evolution. 2019;73:2189\u2013203.","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"5745_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(99)90329-2","volume":"93","author":"T Smith","year":"1999","unstructured":"Smith T, Felger I, Tanner M, Beck HP. Premunition in Plasmodium falciparum infection: insights from the epidemiology of multiple infections. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1999;93:59\u201364.","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"5745_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-36493-y","volume":"9","author":"P Sondo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sondo P, Derra K, Lefevre T, Diallo-Nakanabo S, Tarnagda Z, Zampa O, et al. Genetically diverse Plasmodium falciparum infections, within-host competition and symptomatic malaria in humans. Sci Rep. 2019;9:127.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"5745_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-8-78","volume":"8","author":"A Liljander","year":"2009","unstructured":"Liljander A, Wiklund L, Falk N, Kweku M, Martensson A, Felger I, et al. Optimization and validation of multi-coloured capillary electrophoresis for genotyping of Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface proteins (msp1 and 2). Malar J. 2009;8:78.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5745_CR13","volume-title":"Methods and techniques for clinical trials on antimalarial drug efficacy: genotyping to identify parasite populations","author":"WHO","year":"2008","unstructured":"WHO. Methods and techniques for clinical trials on antimalarial drug efficacy: genotyping to identify parasite populations. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008."},{"key":"5745_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiac144","volume":"226","author":"K Wamae","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wamae K, Kimenyi KM, Osoti V, de Laurent ZR, Ndwiga L, Kharabora O, et al. Amplicon sequencing as a potential surveillance tool for complexity of infection and drug resistance markers in Plasmodium falciparum asymptomatic infections. J Infect Dis. 2022;226:920\u20137.","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"5745_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-018-2337-y","volume":"17","author":"D Zhong","year":"2018","unstructured":"Zhong D, Lo E, Wang X, Yewhalaw D, Zhou G, Atieli HE, et al. Multiplicity and molecular epidemiology of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum infections in East Africa. Malar J. 2018;17:185.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5745_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19809","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-99192-1","volume":"11","author":"A Osborne","year":"2021","unstructured":"Osborne A, Manko E, Takeda M, Kaneko A, Kagaya W, Chan C, et al. Characterizing the genomic variation and population dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites in and around Lake Victoria. Kenya Sci Rep. 2021;11:19809.","journal-title":"Kenya Sci Rep"},{"key":"5745_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-018-2322-5","volume":"17","author":"D Zhong","year":"2018","unstructured":"Zhong D, Koepfli C, Cui L, Yan G. Molecular approaches to determine the multiplicity of Plasmodium infections. Malar J. 2018;17:172.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5745_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2024.116667","volume":"111","author":"K Verma","year":"2025","unstructured":"Verma K, Razack SA, Schneider KA, Bharti PK. Microsatellites markers fostering the understanding of malaria parasite biology, epidemiology and population genetics. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2025;111:116667.","journal-title":"Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis"},{"key":"5745_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-62819-w","volume":"10","author":"AO Touray","year":"2020","unstructured":"Touray AO, Mobegi VA, Wamunyokoli F, Herren JK. Diversity and multiplicity of P. falciparum infections among asymptomatic school children in Mbita, Western Kenya. Sci Rep. 2020;10:5924.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"5745_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-024-04901-6","volume":"23","author":"DS Ishengoma","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ishengoma DS, Mandara CI, Madebe RA, Warsame M, Ngasala B, Kabanywanyi AM, et al. Microsatellites reveal high polymorphism and high potential for use in anti-malarial efficacy studies in areas with different transmission intensities in mainland Tanzania. Malar J. 2024;23:79.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5745_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-024-00656-7","volume":"7","author":"A Mwesigwa","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mwesigwa A, Ocan M, Cummings B, Musinguzi B, Kiyaga S. Plasmodium falciparum genetic diversity and multiplicity of infection among asymptomatic and symptomatic malaria - infected individuals in Uganda. Trop Med Health. 2024;7:86.","journal-title":"Trop Med Health"},{"key":"5745_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R132","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-9822(98)70989-3","volume":"8","author":"C Schl\u00f6tterer","year":"1998","unstructured":"Schl\u00f6tterer C. Genome evolution: are microsatellites really simple sequences? Curr Biol. 1998;8:R132\u20134.","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"5745_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182099004552","volume":"119","author":"TJC Anderson","year":"1999","unstructured":"Anderson TJC, Su XZ, Bockarie M, Lagog M, Day KP. Twelve microsatellite markers for characterization of Plasmodium falciparum from finger-prick blood samples. Parasitology. 1999;119:113\u201325.","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"5745_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026247","volume":"17","author":"TJC Anderson","year":"2000","unstructured":"Anderson TJC, Haubold B, Williams JT, Estrada-Franco JG, Richardson L, Mollinedo R, et al. Microsatellite markers reveal a spectrum of population structures in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biol Evol. 2000;17:1467\u201382.","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol"},{"key":"5745_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-015-1003-x","volume":"14","author":"W Gatei","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gatei W, Gimnig JE, Hawley W, Ter Kuile F, Odero C, Iriemenam NC, et al. Genetic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum parasite by microsatellite markers after scale-up of insecticide-treated bed nets in western Kenya. Malar J. 2015;14:495.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5745_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.13223","volume":"24","author":"D Nderu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Nderu D, Kimani F, Karanja E, Thiong\u2019o K, Akinyi M, Too E, et al. Genetic diversity and population structure of Plasmodium falciparum in Kenyan-Ugandan border areas. Trop Med Int Health. 2019;24:647\u201356.","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"5745_CR27","volume-title":"Informal consultation on methodoloty to distinguish reinfection from recrudenscence in high malaria transmission areas","author":"WHO","year":"2021","unstructured":"WHO. Informal consultation on methodoloty to distinguish reinfection from recrudenscence in high malaria transmission areas. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021."},{"key":"5745_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.73.210","volume":"73","author":"A Nyachieo","year":"2005","unstructured":"Nyachieo A, Van Overmeir C, Laurent T, Dujardin JC, D\u2019Alessandro U. Plasmodium falciparum genotyping by microsatellites as a method to distinguish between recrudescent and new infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;73:210\u20133.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"5745_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4375","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-88892-7","volume":"15","author":"A Mwesigwa","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mwesigwa A, Golumbeanu M, Jones S, Cantoreggi SL, Musinguzi B, Nankabirwa JI, et al. Assessment of different genotyping markers and algorithms for distinguishing Plasmodium falciparum recrudescence from reinfection in Uganda. Sci Rep. 2025;15:4375.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"5745_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1145\/3448106","volume":"5","author":"C Park","year":"2021","unstructured":"Park C, Ngo H, Rose Lavitt L, Karuri V, Bhatt S, Lubell-doughtie P, et al. The design and evaluation of a mobile system for rapid diagnostic test interpretation. Proc ACM Interact Mob Wearable Ubiquitous Technol. 2021;5:26.","journal-title":"Proc ACM Interact Mob Wearable Ubiquitous Technol"},{"key":"5745_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/89.3.583","volume":"89","author":"M Nei","year":"1978","unstructured":"Nei M. Estimation of average heterozygosity and genetic distance from a small number of individuals. Genetics. 1978;89:583\u201390.","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"5745_CR32","unstructured":"R Core Team. R: a language and environment for statistical computing. 2025."},{"key":"5745_CR33","unstructured":"Kassambara A. \u201cggplot2\u201d based publication ready plots. R package. Comprehensive R archive network (CRAN); 2020."},{"key":"5745_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-022-04213-7","volume":"21","author":"KM Kimenyi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kimenyi KM, Wamae K, Ngoi JM, de Laurent ZR, Ndwiga L, Osoti V, et al. Maintenance of high temporal Plasmodium falciparum genetic diversity and complexity of infection in asymptomatic and symptomatic infections in Kilifi, Kenya from 2007 to 2018. Malar J. 2022;21:192.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5745_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-6-131","volume":"6","author":"DL Smith","year":"2007","unstructured":"Smith DL, Guerra CA, Snow RW, Hay SI. Standardizing estimates of the Plasmodium falciparum parasite rate. Malar J. 2007;6:131.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5745_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit613","volume":"209","author":"M Pinkevych","year":"2013","unstructured":"Pinkevych M, Petravic J, Chelimo K, Vulule J, Kazura JW, Moormann AM, et al. Decreased growth rate of P. falciparum blood stage parasitemia with age in a holoendemic population. J Infect Dis. 2013;209:1136.","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"5745_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy591","volume":"219","author":"K Wamae","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wamae K, Wambua J, Nyangweso G, Mwambingu G, Osier F, Ndung\u2019u F, et al. Transmission and age impact the risk of developing febrile malaria in children with asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum parasitemia. J Infect Dis. 2018;219:936\u201344.","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"5745_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00025-08","volume":"22","author":"DL Doolan","year":"2009","unstructured":"Doolan DL, Doba\u00f1o C, Baird JK. Acquired immunity to malaria. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2009;22:13\u201336.","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"5745_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002047","volume":"13","author":"P Mogeni","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mogeni P, Williams TN, Fegan G, Nyundo C, Bauni E, Mwai K, et al. Age, spatial, and temporal variations in hospital admissions with malaria in Kilifi County, Kenya: a 25-year longitudinal observational study. PLoS Med. 2016;13:e1002047.","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"5745_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-0383","volume":"95","author":"FM Mulenge","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mulenge FM, Hunja CW, Magiri E, Culleton R, Kaneko A, Aman RA. Genetic diversity and population structure of Plasmodium falciparum in Lake Victoria islands, a region of intense transmission. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2016;95:1077\u201385.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"5745_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-12-397","volume":"12","author":"DK Pindolia","year":"2013","unstructured":"Pindolia DK, Garcia AJ, Huang Z, Smith DL, Alegana VA, Noor AM, et al. The demographics of human and malaria movement and migration patterns in East Africa. Malar J. 2013;12:397.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5745_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0032725","volume":"7","author":"N Minakawa","year":"2012","unstructured":"Minakawa N, Dida GO, Sonye GO, Futami K, Njenga SM. Malaria vectors in Lake Victoria and adjacent habitats in Western Kenya. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e32725.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"5745_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2006.01.009","volume":"6","author":"SL Takala","year":"2006","unstructured":"Takala SL, Escalante AA, Branch OH, Kariuki S, Biswas S, Chaiyaroj SC, et al. Genetic diversity in the Block 2 region of the merozoite surface protein 1 (MSP-1) of Plasmodium falciparum: additional complexity and selection and convergence in fragment size polymorphism. Infect Genet Evol. 2006;6:417.","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol"},{"key":"5745_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-017-4260-y","volume":"18","author":"A Lerch","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lerch A, Koepfli C, Hofmann NE, Messerli C, Wilcox S, Kattenberg JH, et al. Development of amplicon deep sequencing markers and data analysis pipeline for genotyping multi-clonal malaria infections. BMC Genomics. 2017;18:864.","journal-title":"BMC Genomics"}],"container-title":["Malaria Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05745-4","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05745-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05745-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T22:02:26Z","timestamp":1767045746000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05745-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5745"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-025-05745-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["1475-2875"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1475-2875"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 September 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 December 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 December 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Written informed consent was obtained from the guardians of the study participants prior to sample collection. Ethical approval was obtained from the Kenya Medical Research Institute\u2019s (KEMRI) Scientific Ethics and Review Unit (SERU) under protocol number 3403 for the TES study and 2617 for the malaria monitoring study.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"452"}}