{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T00:09:00Z","timestamp":1792022940982,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768435200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770681600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":26,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"SRM Institute of Science & Technology"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Malar J"],"DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-026-05784-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T12:03:19Z","timestamp":1768478599000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Geographic variation in malaria prevalence among children under five in coastal and inland counties of Liberia: analysis of the 2022 Malaria Indicator Survey"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Richard Sagacity","family":"Tugbeh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Geetha","family":"Veliah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H. Gladius","family":"Jennifer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"T.-Con E. B.","family":"Shaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samadou","family":"Tchakondo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Komi Selassi","family":"Gayi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayao Sang\u00e9nis","family":"Assogba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yendouname","family":"Kandjoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"5784_CR1","volume-title":"Malaria\u2019s impact worldwide","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"2024","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Malaria\u2019s impact worldwide. Atlanta: CDC; 2024."},{"key":"5784_CR2","volume-title":"World malaria report 2023","author":"WHO","year":"2023","unstructured":"WHO. World malaria report 2023. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023."},{"key":"5784_CR3","volume-title":"Global technical strategy for malaria 2016\u20132030: 2021 update","author":"WHO","year":"2021","unstructured":"WHO. Global technical strategy for malaria 2016\u20132030: 2021 update. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021."},{"key":"5784_CR4","volume-title":"High burden to high impact: a targeted malaria response","author":"WHO","year":"2018","unstructured":"WHO. High burden to high impact: a targeted malaria response. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018."},{"key":"5784_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15535","volume":"526","author":"S Bhatt","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bhatt S, Weiss DJ, Cameron E, Bisanzio D, Mappin B, Dalrymple U, et al. The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015. Nature. 2015;526:207\u201311.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"5784_CR6","unstructured":"National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP), Liberia. Liberia Malaria Indicator Survey (LMIS) 2022: Final report. Monrovia (Liberia): NMCP; 2023. Available from:  https:\/\/www.dhsprogram.com\/pubs\/pdf\/MIS44\/MIS44.pdf. Accessed 7 Jan  2025."},{"key":"5784_CR7","unstructured":"National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP). Liberia National Malaria Strategic Plan 2021\u20132025. Ministry of Health, Liberia. 2022."},{"key":"5784_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04623-1","volume":"22","author":"AA Koffi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Koffi AA, Camara S, Ahoua Alou LP, Oumbouke WA, Wolie RZ, Tia IZ, et al. Anopheles vector distribution and malaria transmission dynamics in Gb\u00eak\u00e9 region, central C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire. Malar J. 2023;22:192.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5784_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-022-07445-9","volume":"22","author":"R Nyasa","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nyasa R, Awatboh F, Kwenti TE, Titanji VPK, Ayamba NLM. The effect of climatic factors on the number of malaria cases in an inland and a coastal setting from 2011 to 206 in the equatorial rain forest of Cameroon. BMC Infect Dis. 2022;22:461.","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"5784_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21111487","volume":"21","author":"N Traor\u00e9","year":"2024","unstructured":"Traor\u00e9 N, Millogo O, Si\u00e9 A, Vounatsou P. Impact of climate variability and interventions on malaria incidence and forecasting in Burkina Faso. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2024;21:1487.","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"5784_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bationo CS, Lokossou V, Landier J, Sylla B, Tougri G, Ouedraogo B, et al. Geo-epidemiology of malaria in Burkina Faso, 2013\u20132018: a recent re-increase. Medrxiv. 2021. (Preprint). https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2021.10.27.21265260v1.full.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.10.27.21265260v1.full"},{"issue":"Suppl. S3","key":"5784_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-0696","volume":"97","author":"MC Thomson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Thomson MC, Ukawuba I, Hershey CL, Bennett A, Ceccato P, Lyon B, et al. Using rainfall and temperature data in the evaluation of national malaria control programs in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2017;97(Suppl. S3):32\u201345.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"5784_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1411-6","volume":"15","author":"GJ Abiodun","year":"2016","unstructured":"Abiodun GJ, Maharaj R, Witbooi P, Okosun KO. Modelling the influence of temperature and rainfall on the population dynamics of Anopheles arabiensis. Malar J. 2016;15:364.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5784_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03584-7","volume":"20","author":"A Okiring","year":"2021","unstructured":"Okiring A, Epstein A, Namuganga JF, Kamya V, Sserwanga A, Kapisi J, et al. Relationships between test positivity rate, total laboratory confirmed cases of malaria, and malaria incidence in high burden settings of Uganda: an ecological analysis. Malar J. 2021;20:42.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5784_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0211205","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0211205","volume":"14","author":"D Abraham","year":"2019","unstructured":"Abraham D, Fennie K, Degarege D, Chennupati S, Madhivanan P. Improving socioeconomic status may reduce the burden of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2019;14:e0211205.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"5784_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-023-01117-9","volume":"12","author":"G Yue","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yue G, Liang D, Cao J, Gosling R, Mushi V, Huang J. How socioeconomic status affected access to health facilities and malaria diagnosis in children under five years: findings from 19 sub-Saharan African countries. Infect Dis Poverty. 2023;12:75.","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty"},{"key":"5784_CR17","unstructured":"WHO Liberia. Annual report: protecting the health of vulnerable populations in Liberia. Monrovia (Liberia): World Health Organization; 2024. Available from:  https:\/\/www.afro.who.int\/sites\/default\/files\/2024-02\/WHO%20Liberia%202023%20annual%20report_e-copy.pdf. Accessed 12 Jan  2025."},{"key":"5784_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0000668","author":"E White","year":"2022","unstructured":"White E, Mendin S, Kolubah FR, Karlay R, Grant B, Jacobs GP, et al. Impact of the Liberian national community health assistant program on childhood illness care in Grand Bassa County, Liberia. PLoS Glob Public Health. 2022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0000668.","journal-title":"PLoS Glob Public Health"},{"key":"5784_CR19","unstructured":"USAID Global Health Supply Chain Program \u2013 Procurement and Supply Management (GHSC-PSM). Increasing access to mosquito nets through schools to fight malaria in Liberia. 2024 Apr 10. Available from: https:\/\/www.ghsupplychain.org\/news\/increasing-access-mosquito-nets-through-schools-fight-malaria-liberia. Accessed 8 May 2025."},{"key":"5784_CR20","unstructured":"U.S. President\u2019s Malaria Initiative. Liberia Malaria Profile: FY 2024. Published Mar 2023 [cited 2025 Oct 22].  https:\/\/mesamalaria.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/LIBERIA-Malaria-Profile-PMI-FY-2024.pdf. Mesa Malaria. Accessed 22 Oct 2025."},{"key":"5784_CR21","first-page":"10","volume":"4","author":"J Koko","year":"2021","unstructured":"Koko J, Kollie KK, Ballah K. Episodes of confirmed malaria and associated factors among patients attending selected health facilities, Liberia, 2015\u20132016. J Intervent Epidemiol Public Health. 2021;4:10.","journal-title":"J Intervent Epidemiol Public Health"},{"key":"5784_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.5588\/pha.12.0040","volume":"2","author":"L Bawo","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bawo L, Platt EJ, Korlubah SD. Assessment of long-lasting insecticide-treated net (LLIN) ownership and utilization in households with children under five years in Grand Bassa County, Liberia. Public Health Action. 2012;2:93\u20137.","journal-title":"Public Health Action"},{"key":"5784_CR23","first-page":"425","volume":"6","author":"GN Awantang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Awantang GN, Fiawoo G, Henshaw DL, Ricotta EE. The \u201cHealthy Baby, Happy Mother\u201d campaign and its influence on prompt malaria treatment among caregivers of children under five in Liberia. Malar J. 2018;6:425.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5784_CR24","unstructured":"Liberia Institute of Statistics & Geo-Information Services (LISGIS). 2022 Liberia National Population and Housing Census (NPHC): Thematic report on population size, distribution and structure. Monrovia: LISGIS. 2023. Available from:  https:\/\/lisgis.gov.lr\/censusreport. Accessed 20 Feb  2025."},{"key":"5784_CR25","unstructured":"Liberia Institute of Statistics & Geo-Information Services (LISGIS), Ministry of Health (MoH), National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP), ICF. Liberia Malaria Indicator Survey 2022 (LMIS) . Monrovia, Liberia & Rockville (MD), USA: LISGIS, MoH, NMCP & ICF. 2023. https:\/\/www.dhsprogram.com\/data\/dataset\/Liberia_MIS_2022.cfm. Accessed 20 Oct 2025."},{"key":"5784_CR26","unstructured":"DHS Program. Guide to DHS Statistics (DHS-8). StatCompiler. Rockville (MD): ICF; 2023. Available from: https:\/\/www.dhsprogram.com\/Data\/Guide-to-DHS-Statistics\/index.cfm. Accessed  2 Jun 2025."},{"key":"5784_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8213","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-58287-1","volume":"14","author":"G Kombate","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kombate G, Kone I, Douti B, Soubeiga KAM, Grobbee DE, van der Sande MAB. Malaria risk mapping among children under five in Togo. Sci Rep. 2024;14:8213.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"5784_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05313-w","volume":"24","author":"Y Animut","year":"2025","unstructured":"Animut Y, Nigatu SG, Teklu RE, Abiy SA. Spatial distribution of malaria among under-five children and associated factors in Tanzania: a spatial and multilevel analysis. Malar J. 2025;24:86.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"5784_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.4081\/gh.2020.819","volume":"15","author":"CLJ Ugwu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ugwu CLJ, Zewotir T. Spatial distribution and sociodemographic risk factors of malaria in Nigerian children less than 5 years old. Geospat Health. 2020;15:819.","journal-title":"Geospat Health"},{"key":"5784_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-10305-x","volume":"21","author":"JD Nzabakiriraho","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nzabakiriraho JD, Gayawan E. Geostatistical modeling of malaria prevalence among under-five children in Rwanda. BMC Public Health. 2021;21:369.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"5784_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e39835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e39835","volume":"10","author":"DG Ayele","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ayele DG, Mohammed MOM, Abdallah ASR, Wacho GA. Assessment of malaria transmission in Kenya using multilevel logistic regression. Heliyon. 2024;10:e39835.","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"5784_CR32","unstructured":"World Bank Group. Climate Risk Country Profile: Liberia. Washington (DC): World Bank; 2021. https:\/\/climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2021-07\/1596-WB_Liberia%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf. Accessed  19 April 2025."},{"key":"5784_CR33","unstructured":"UNICEF. Global annual results report 2022: Goal Area 1. New York: UNICEF; 2022 [cited 2025 Oct 20]. Available from: https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/childrenandaids\/media\/746\/file\/Global%20annual%20results%20report%202022_Goal%20Area%201.pdf. Accessed 20 Oct 2025."},{"key":"5784_CR34","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment for malaria: guidelines for clinicians. Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2019. Available from:   http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/malaria\/diagnosis_treatment.html. Accessed 26 April 2025."},{"key":"5784_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.17352\/2455-3484.000054","volume":"8","author":"LL Pederson","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pederson LL, Koval JJ, Vingilis E. Analysis of secondary data: considerations revisited. J Addict Med Ther Sci. 2022;8:10\u20133.","journal-title":"J Addict Med Ther Sci"},{"key":"5784_CR36","unstructured":"DHS Program\/ICF. Protecting the privacy of DHS survey respondents. Rockville (MD): ICF. 2019. https:\/\/dhsprogram.com\/methodology\/Protecting-the-Privacy-of-DHS-Survey-Respondents.cfm. Accessed 10 Jul 2025."}],"container-title":["Malaria Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12936-026-05784-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-026-05784-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-026-05784-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T12:04:14Z","timestamp":1770725054000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12936-026-05784-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5784"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-026-05784-5","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-7937306\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1475-2875"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1475-2875","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"24 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"2 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 January 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study analysed factors driving the transmission and burden of malaria in children under five. The data used in this study are publicly available data from the DHS portal and the authorization to use the dataset was granted by the DHS. Consistent with the standards in ensuring the protection of respondents\u2019 privacy, the collected data used in the present study was anonymous and acquired participants informed consent [\n                      \n                      ]. So, there was no additional ethical permission required.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"92"}}