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The current study explored the temporal and spatial distribution of\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      species and their infection with\n                      <jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic>\n                      in different transmission settings in Tanga region and Unguja, Zanzibar, United Republic of Tanzania.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      From September 2021 to December 2023, monthly entomological surveys were conducted in 11 villages in Tanga and four Shehias in Unguja.\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      mosquitoes were sampled every month in each of 11 villages in Tanga and four Shehias in Unguja, 10 households were consented to participate in each village or Shehia. Mosquitoes were collected indoors and outdoors using CDC light traps, Furvela tent traps, Indoor and Outdoor prokopack. Species identification was performed using PCR, and\n                      <jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic>\n                      infections were detected using TaqMan real-time PCR assay.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 4771\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      mosquitoes collected (3,766 and 905 in Tanga and Unguja respectively), PCR amplification failed in 100 samples. Among successfully identified specimens,\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae s.s.<\/jats:italic>\n                      (43.8%) and\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      (37.1%) were predominant. In Unguja,\n                      <jats:italic>An. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      (55.7%) and\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      (41.9%) were most common. Seasonal variations were observed, with\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae s.s<\/jats:italic>\n                      . and\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus s.s.<\/jats:italic>\n                      peaking in the short rainy season,\n                      <jats:italic>An. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      peaking in both dry and long rainy seasons, and\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      peaked during both the wet and dry seasons, suggesting relatively stable occurrence throughout the year.\n                      <jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection rates for\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae s.s<\/jats:italic>\n                      .,\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus s.s<\/jats:italic>\n                      .,\n                      <jats:italic>An. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      were 3.0% in Tanga and 1.2% in Unguja but only found in\n                      <jats:italic>An. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      . In Tanga,\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s.,\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. were more abundant in upland and lowland areas than in the highlands, with urbanization limiting\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      occurrence. In Unguja,\n                      <jats:italic>An. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      were less common in semi-urban areas but showed a sharp increase during the wet season.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The study indicates a shift in\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>s.l.<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0sibling species composition has taken place in the study areas compared to previous reports. In the past,\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      was not considered an important vector in Tanzania. However, in this study\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      was observed as the second most abundant species across coastal and inland areas of Tanga and Unguja during both wet and dry season. Combined with its observed infection with\n                      <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      , the findings suggest\n                      <jats:italic>An. merus<\/jats:italic>\n                      may contribute to perennial transmission of malaria in the region. This presents a new challenge to malaria vector surveillance and control including the need for a year-round multi-strategic approach.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-026-05811-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T12:45:52Z","timestamp":1772801152000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Longitudinal surveillance of Anopheles mosquitoes across different settings in Tanga and Unguja: increased distribution of An. merus in coastal and inland areas of Tanzania"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Neema B.","family":"Kulaya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lembris Laanyuni","family":"Njotto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert D.","family":"Kaaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nancy A.","family":"Kassam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karin L.","family":"Schi\u00f8ler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ottmar","family":"Cronie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna-Sofie","family":"Stensgaard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wilfred","family":"Senyoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yahya A.","family":"Derua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Filbert","family":"Francis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John P. 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Before starting collecting mosquitoes in houses, the leaders of the households gave their verbal agreement. Permission to conduct the study was granted by the Medical Research Coordinating Committee of the National Institute for Medical Research in Tanzania mainland (Ref: No. NIMR\/HQ\/R.8a\/Vol. IX\/3640), Zanzibar Research Committee in Zanzibar (Ref: No. 62D5352876F23) and Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College Research Ethics and Review Committee (CRERC) (Ref: No. 2587).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Consent for publication was obtained from all participants and\/or their legal guardians in accordance with institutional guidelines.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"138"}}