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This study in Tanzania introduces and field-tests the first such scalable framework design and reports summaries of the earliest data generated, thus demonstrating its feasibility and utility for generating programmatically informative indicators of both mosquito and human behaviours.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A single village was randomly selected from each of twenty-five ecologically and epidemiologically diverse sentinel districts distributed across Tanzania for simultaneous surveys of malaria vector and human behaviours, using a rolling cross-sectional design. Entomological and anthropological surveys were repeated approximately annually over three years, with each village surveyed on three separate occasions across wet and dry seasons to account for temporal variations between sites due to seasons. Mosquito electrocuting traps (MET) were employed for sampling mosquitoes both indoors and outdoors with human behaviour surveyed by standard questionnaire.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Entomological and anthropological indicators were successfully and simultaneously measured in all 25 sentinel districts\n                      <jats:italic>. Anopheles arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      was widespread across the country, whilst\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. and\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. were more localized. Despite being collected in small numbers, blood-fed\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. and\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. were predominantly human-fed, whereas\n                      <jats:italic>An. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>An. quadriannulatus<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>An. leesoni<\/jats:italic>\n                      fed predominantly on cattle. Higher proportions of host-seeking\n                      <jats:italic>An. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      were caught outdoors (64.9%) than\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. (58.4%) or\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus s.s.<\/jats:italic>\n                      (42.4%). Across all age groups, people were more likely to be outdoors during the early evening hours (18:00 to 21:00), with the highest proportions observed among adolescents (13\u201317\u00a0years) and adults (\u2265\u200918\u00a0years) compared to under-fives (0\u20135\u00a0years) and children (6\u201312\u00a0years). Adolescent males were less likely to use bednet relative to other demographic groups. Higher temperatures were associated with reduced reported bednet use during the dry season but not during the wet season.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This national surveillance framework proved highly effective for measuring relevant metrics of mosquito and human behaviours that can inform optimization of malaria control strategies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-026-05893-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T07:18:59Z","timestamp":1774855139000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Nationally representative programmatic surveillance of mosquito and human behaviours that influence human exposure to malaria transmission and the impact of vector control across Tanzania"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Maneno E.","family":"Baravuga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Praise","family":"Michael","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fadhila","family":"Kihwele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brian","family":"Masanja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Selemani","family":"Mmbaga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amos T.","family":"Mlalwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isaac Haggai","family":"Namango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alanna-Jo","family":"McCallum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nosrat","family":"Mirzai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles D.","family":"Mwalimu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samwel","family":"Lazaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gerry F.","family":"Killeen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samson","family":"Kiware","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heather M.","family":"Ferguson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicodem J.","family":"Govella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"5893_CR1","unstructured":"NBS: Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey 2022 Key Indicators Report. 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Each volunteer was provided with informed consent after a verbal explanation of the study design. Information sheets on the informed consent form included assurance of confidentiality, voluntary participation, potential risks and benefits associated with the study. The volunteers had the right to withdraw from the study at any time without justification. Upon arriving at a sentinel district for the first time, the research team engaged with local authorities by describing the purpose and importance of the study (including sharing national-level approvals and including ethical approval) and sought local approval for community entry. After receiving approvals from the local authorities, the research team visited village leaders at the central village office, where a project was introduced and permission was requested to carry out the research in their communities. This is the stage where households were randomly selected from village household listings as described above. With accompaniment from an appointed village representative, the research team visited the selected households and requested participation. The research team provided a brief overview of the project, describing the purpose of the study, potential benefit of the study to participating households and the wider community, as well as potential risks of participation and rights of withdrawal. Issues of confidentiality, voluntary participation, and procedures involved in data collection were explained. After obtaining written informed consent from the head of households, the team with the help of village leaders recruited and trained volunteers participating in sampling mosquitoes following volunteers own informed consent. Priority was given to individuals living in the same households. In cases where no one in the household was interested in participating, volunteers were recruited from neighbouring households. All these procedures were completed within a day or two before the actual implementation of the survey in the village.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"This study received permission to publish from the National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Tanzania.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"207"}}