{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T09:48:36Z","timestamp":1792057716546,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784073600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791763200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":89,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000200","name":"United States Agency for International Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AID-OAA-A-17-00017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AID-OAA-A-17-00017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000200","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000200","name":"United States Agency for International Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AID OAA-17-00008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AID OAA-17-00008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000200","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Malar J"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Integrating human behavioral data with data on malaria vector biting rates can help to quantify human exposure to malaria vectors and identify gaps in protection; however, to date, the availability of necessary human location and behavior data have been more limited as compared to that of corresponding entomological data. To expand the data available for use in vector-human data integrations, this case example explored the process and interpretations of integrating human behavior estimates from the Malaria Behavior Survey (MBS), a large-scale cross-sectional survey measuring behaviors and their determinants, with routinely collected VectorLink entomological surveillance data in Central Malawi.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study followed established guidance on vector-human data integration to guide extraction of necessary data inputs from existing, routinely collected data. Hourly nighttime human behavior and location estimates, as well as population insecticide treated bednet (ITN) use rate, were derived from questions in the Malawi MBS, conducted in Malawi in May\u2013July 2021. Hourly nighttime human biting rates were derived from human landing catches (HLCs) carried out by VectorLink in Malawi in June 2021. Human and vector data were then integrated to provide weighted estimates of exposure to vector bites, accounting for proportions of people indoors or outdoors, and protected by ITNs, each hour of the night.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>When accounting for mosquito and human location, most exposure to vector bites was estimated to occur indoors (96%), at times when people were asleep (87%). Although most mosquito bites occurred indoors during sleeping hours\u2014when ITNs could offer protection\u2014only 35% of all exposure to bites was estimated to be prevented, considering that the population-level usage rate of ITNs was only 40%. ITN access, which was only 39%, was identified as an important factor contributing to the protection gap.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This case example suggests that integrating routinely collected entomological and human behavioral data can provide programmatically relevant insights. Future studies or programs may consider data integration of similar sources to better inform vector control or social and behavior change activities.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-026-06043-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T17:46:28Z","timestamp":1784137588000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Integrating routinely collected mosquito vector and human behavioral data for malaria prevention: A case example in central region Malawi"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Kaci D.","family":"McCoy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Allison","family":"Hendershot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdoulaye","family":"Bangoura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leonard","family":"Dandalo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Bride","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shadreck","family":"Mulenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akuzike","family":"Banda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Munthali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Themba","family":"Mzilahowa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sophia","family":"Kaufman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stella","family":"Babalola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shelby","family":"Cash","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John E.","family":"Gimnig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabrielle","family":"Hunter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bolanle","family":"Olapeju","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Millward","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Neil F.","family":"Lobo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Zohdy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jenny Carlson","family":"Donnelly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"April","family":"Monroe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"6043_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-016-0151-8","author":"RE Cibulskis","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cibulskis RE, Alonso P, Aponte J, Aregawi M, Barrette A, Bergeron L, et al. Malaria: global progress 2000\u20132015 and future challenges. Infect Dis Poverty. 2016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40249-016-0151-8.","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty"},{"issue":"5","key":"6043_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2021-005447","volume":"6","author":"HM Topazian","year":"2018","unstructured":"Topazian HM, Gumbo A, Brandt K, Kayange M, Smith JS, Edwards JK, et al. Effectiveness of a national mass distribution campaign of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets and indoor residual spraying on clinical malaria in Malawi, 2018\u20132020. BMJ Glob Health. 2018;6(5):e005447. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjgh-2021-005447.","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-023-05710-7","volume":"16","author":"E Perugini","year":"2023","unstructured":"Perugini E, Guelbeogo WM, Guglielmo F, Poggi C, Gabrieli E, Ranson H, et al. The interplay between malaria vectors and human activity accounts for high residual malaria transmission in a Burkina Faso village with universal ITN coverage. Parasit Vectors. 2023;16(1):101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-023-05710-7.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-015-0829-6","volume":"14","author":"J Mwesigwa","year":"2015","unstructured":"Mwesigwa J, Okebe J, Affara M, Di Tanna GL, Nwakanma D, Janha O, et al. On-going malaria transmission in The Gambia despite high coverage of control interventions: a nationwide cross-sectional survey. Malar J. 2015;14(1):314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-015-0829-6.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"6043_CR5","volume-title":"World malaria report 2023","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2023","unstructured":"World Health Organization. World malaria report 2023. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023."},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a025643","volume":"8","author":"NF Lobo","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lobo NF, Achee NL, Greico J, Collins FH. Modern Vector Control. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2018;8(1):a025643. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/cshperspect.a025643.","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04473-x","volume":"22","author":"KP Paaijmans","year":"2023","unstructured":"Paaijmans KP, Lobo NF. Gaps in protection: the actual challenge in malaria elimination. Malar J. 2023;22(1):46. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-023-04473-x.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"9","key":"6043_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006499","volume":"13","author":"H Alout","year":"2017","unstructured":"Alout H, Roche B, Dabir\u00e9 RK, Cohuet A. Consequences of insecticide resistance on malaria transmission. PLoS Pathog. 2017;13(9):e1006499. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006499.","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-010814-020828","volume":"60","author":"N Liu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Liu N. Insecticide Resistance in Mosquitoes: Impact, Mechanisms, and Research Directions. Annu Rev Entomol. 2015;60(1):537\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-ento-010814-020828.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Entomol"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-3076-4","volume":"18","author":"AK Musiime","year":"2019","unstructured":"Musiime AK, Smith DL, Kilama M, Rek J, Arinaitwe E, Nankabirwa JI, et al. Impact of vector control interventions on malaria transmission intensity, outdoor vector biting rates and Anopheles mosquito species composition in Tororo, Uganda. Malar J. 2019;18(1):445. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-019-3076-4.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"6043_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ferguson HM, Govella NJ. Chapter 13 Impacts of climate change on malaria vector control in Africa. In Brill. 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3920\/9789004688650_015","DOI":"10.3920\/9789004688650_015"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-015-0766-4","volume":"14","author":"MK Cooke","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cooke MK, Kahindi SC, Oriango RM, Owaga C, Ayoma E, Mabuka D, et al. \u2018A bite before bed\u2019: exposure to malaria vectors outside the times of net use in the highlands of western Kenya. Malar J. 2015;14(1):259. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-015-0766-4.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-017-2098-z","volume":"16","author":"T Degefa","year":"2017","unstructured":"Degefa T, Yewhalaw D, Zhou G, Lee M, Atieli H, Githeko AK, et al. Indoor and outdoor malaria vector surveillance in western Kenya: implications for better understanding of residual transmission. Malar J. 2017;16(1):443. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-017-2098-z.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04748-9","volume":"14","author":"AM Mustapha","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mustapha AM, Musembi S, Nyamache AK, Machani MG, Kosgei J, Wamuyu L, et al. Secondary malaria vectors in western Kenya include novel species with unexpectedly high densities and parasite infection rates. Parasites Vectors. 2021;14(1):252. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-021-04748-9.","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-12-56","volume":"12","author":"TL Russell","year":"2013","unstructured":"Russell TL, Beebe NW, Cooper RD, Lobo NF, Burkot TR. Successful malaria elimination strategies require interventions that target changing vector behaviours. Malar J. 2013;12(1):56. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1475-2875-12-56.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"15","key":"6043_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1280-z","volume":"19","author":"GF Killeen","year":"2016","unstructured":"Killeen GF, Govella NJ, Lwetoijera DW, Okumu FO. Most outdoor malaria transmission by behaviourally-resistant anopheles arabiensis is mediated by mosquitoes that have previously been inside houses. Malar J. 2016;19(15):225. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-016-1280-z.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"21","key":"6043_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2104282119","volume":"119","author":"C Sangbakembi-Ngounou","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sangbakembi-Ngounou C, Costantini C, Longo-Pendy NM, Ngoagouni C, Akone-Ella O, Rahola N, et al. Diurnal biting of malaria mosquitoes in the Central African Republic indicates residual transmission may be \u201cout of control.\u201d Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2022;119(21):e2104282119. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2104282119.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"6043_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2024.107197","volume":"147","author":"M Ooko","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ooko M, Bela NR, Leonard M, Maye VON, Efiri PBE, Ekoko W, et al. Malaria burden and residual transmission: two thirds of mosquito bites may not be preventable with current vector control tools on Bioko Island. Equatorial Guinea Int J Infect Dis. 2024;147:107197. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijid.2024.107197.","journal-title":"Equatorial Guinea Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04490-w","volume":"22","author":"H Koenker","year":"2023","unstructured":"Koenker H, Kumoji EK, Erskine M, Opoku R, Sternberg E, Taylor C. Reported reasons for non-use of insecticide-treated nets in large national household surveys, 2009\u20132021. Malar J. 2023;22(1):61.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-2638-9","volume":"18","author":"A Monroe","year":"2019","unstructured":"Monroe A, Moore S, Koenker H, Lynch M, Ricotta E. Measuring and characterizing night time human behaviour as it relates to residual malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of the published literature. Malar J. 2019;18(1):6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-019-2638-9.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"11","key":"6043_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.20.285369","volume":"99","author":"A Monroe","year":"2021","unstructured":"Monroe A, Olapeju B, Moore S, Hunter G, Merritt AP, Okumu F, et al. Improving malaria control by understanding human behaviour. Bull World Health Organ. 2021;99(11):837\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2471\/BLT.20.285369.","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-022-05563-6","volume":"15","author":"T Mwema","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mwema T, Lukubwe O, Joseph R, Maliti D, Iitula I, Katokele S, et al. Human and vector behaviors determine exposure to Anopheles in Namibia. Parasit Vectors. 2022;15(1):436. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-022-05563-6.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04453-1","volume":"22","author":"MI \u00c1vila","year":"2023","unstructured":"\u00c1vila MI, Vajda \u00c9A, Jeffrey Guti\u00e9rrez E, Gibson D, Renteria MM, Presley N, et al. Entomological Surveillance Planning Tool (ESPT)-generated actionable evidence on human and vector behaviours optimizes present interventions and reduces exposure to Anopheles vectors in two communities of Guna Yala, Panam\u00e1. Malar J. 2023;22(1):26. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-023-04453-1.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"30","key":"6043_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15086","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1820646116","volume":"116","author":"E Sherrard-Smith","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sherrard-Smith E, Skarp JE, Beale AD, Fornadel C, Norris LC, Moore SJ, et al. Mosquito feeding behavior and how it influences residual malaria transmission across Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2019;116(30):15086\u201395. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1820646116.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"12","key":"6043_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0244454","volume":"15","author":"B Olapeju","year":"2020","unstructured":"Olapeju B, Adams C, Hunter G, Wilson S, Simpson J, Mitchum L, et al. Malaria prevention and care seeking among gold miners in Guyana. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(12):e0244454.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"8","key":"6043_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.19110.1","volume":"19","author":"D Mategula","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mategula D, Mitambo C, Sheahan W, Masingi Mbeye N, Gumbo A, Kwizombe C, et al. Malaria burden stratification in malawi- a report of a consultative workshop to inform the 2023\u20132030 malawi malaria strategic plan. Wellcome Open Res. 2023;19(8):178. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.19110.1.","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05267-z","volume":"24","author":"KO Opondo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Opondo KO, Alyko E, Smith S, Levine R, Donnelly J, Hughes T, et al. Characterization of insecticide resistance mechanisms in the anopheles gambiae population of Sierra Leone. Malar J. 2025;24(1):80.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"3","key":"6043_CR28","first-page":"77","volume":"7","author":"S Amirjalali","year":"2024","unstructured":"Amirjalali S. Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Sci-Cultural J Ecosphere. 2024;7(3):77\u201382.","journal-title":"Sci-Cultural J Ecosphere."},{"issue":"3","key":"6043_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2011.06.017","volume":"121","author":"DP Mathanga","year":"2012","unstructured":"Mathanga DP, Walker ED, Wilson ML, Ali D, Taylor TE, Laufer MK. Malaria control in Malawi: current status and directions for the future. Acta Trop. 2012;121(3):212\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actatropica.2011.06.017.","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"issue":"5","key":"6043_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0028","volume":"89","author":"A Bennett","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bennett A, Kazembe L, Mathanga DP, Kinyoki D, Ali D, Snow RW, et al. Mapping malaria transmission intensity in Malawi, 2000\u20132010. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2013;89(5):840\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0028.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"10496","key":"6043_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(25)00805-0","volume":"405","author":"TL Symons","year":"2025","unstructured":"Symons TL, Lubinda J, McPhail M, Saddler A, van den Berg M, Baggen H, et al. Estimating the potential malaria morbidity and mortality avertable by the US President\u2019s Malaria Initiative in 2025: a geospatial modelling analysis. The Lancet. 2025;405(10496):2231\u201340.","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"6043_CR32","volume-title":"Malawi 2020 End of Spray Report: Spray Campaign: October 26-December 4, 2020","author":"The PMI VectorLink Project","year":"2021","unstructured":"The PMI VectorLink Project. Malawi 2020 End of Spray Report: Spray Campaign: October 26-December 4, 2020. Rockville, MD: The PMI VectorLink Project, Abt Associates Inc.; 2021."},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-03266-w","volume":"19","author":"A Monroe","year":"2020","unstructured":"Monroe A, Msaky D, Kiware S, Tarimo BB, Moore S, Haji K, et al. Patterns of human exposure to malaria vectors in Zanzibar and implications for malaria elimination efforts. Malar J. 2020;19(1):212. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-020-03266-w.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-03271-z","volume":"19","author":"A Monroe","year":"2020","unstructured":"Monroe A, Moore S, Okumu F, Kiware S, Lobo NF, Koenker H, et al. Methods and indicators for measuring patterns of human exposure to malaria vectors. Malar J. 2020;19(1):207. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-020-03271-z.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"6043_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olapeju B, Bride M, Volkmann T, Cash S, Dembo E, Kayange M, Gumbo A, Mafuleka T, Boyle J, Mang\u2019ando A, Mbeye NM. Three delays of malaria care-seeking in Malawi: a cross-sectional study. BMJ open. 2026;16(5): e115859","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2025-115859"},{"key":"6043_CR36","unstructured":"Breakthrough Action. Malaria Behavior Survey. Country Results: Malawi."},{"key":"6043_CR37","unstructured":"The DHS Program. Malari Indicator Toolkit: 11 - MIS Tabulations for Malaria Indicators. ICF: Rockville, MD."},{"key":"6043_CR38","unstructured":"PMI VectorLink Project. Monitoring Durability of Yorkool and Royal Sentry Nets Distributed Nationwide in 2016 in Malawi. Rockville, MD, U.S.: Abt Associates; 2019."},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-015-0877-y","volume":"14","author":"JM Riveron","year":"2015","unstructured":"Riveron JM, Chiumia M, Menze BD, Barnes KG, Irving H, Ibrahim SS, et al. Rise of multiple insecticide resistance in Anopheles funestus in Malawi: a major concern for malaria vector control. Malar J. 2015;14(1):344. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-015-0877-y.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-015-0554-1","volume":"14","author":"KA Lindblade","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lindblade KA, Mwandama D, Mzilahowa T, Steinhardt L, Gimnig J, Shah M, et al. A cohort study of the effectiveness of insecticide-treated bed nets to prevent malaria in an area of moderate pyrethroid resistance, Malawi. Malar J. 2015;14(1):31. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-015-0554-1.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-022-05299-3","volume":"15","author":"J Kumala","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kumala J, Koekemoer LL, Coetzee M, Mzilahowa T. Intensity of insecticide resistance in the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus from Chikwawa, rural Southern Malawi. Parasites Vectors. 2022;15(1):220. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-022-05299-3.","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-3106-2","volume":"19","author":"MP Shah","year":"2020","unstructured":"Shah MP, Steinhardt LC, Mwandama D, Mzilahowa T, Gimnig JE, Bauleni A, et al. The effectiveness of older insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) to prevent malaria infection in an area of moderate pyrethroid resistance: results from a cohort study in Malawi. Malar J. 2020;19(1):24. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-020-3106-2.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"Supplement_2","key":"6043_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S61","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab084","volume":"223","author":"P Carnevale","year":"2021","unstructured":"Carnevale P, Manguin S. Review of issues on residual malaria transmission. J Infect Dis. 2021;223(Supplement_2):S61-80. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/infdis\/jiab084.","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"6043_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durnez L, Coosemans M. 2013. Residual transmission of malaria: an old issue for new approaches. InAnopheles mosquitoes-New insights into malaria vectors IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/55925"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-022-04200-y","volume":"21","author":"RM Musiba","year":"2022","unstructured":"Musiba RM, Tarimo BB, Monroe A, Msaky D, Ngowo H, Mihayo K, et al. Outdoor biting and pyrethroid resistance as potential drivers of persistent malaria transmission in Zanzibar. Malar J. 2022;21(1):172. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-022-04200-y.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"6043_CR46","unstructured":"The PMI Evolve Project. Malawi Annual Entomology Report July 2022-June 2023. Rockville, MD: The PMI Evolve Project, Abt Global LLC."},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-13-82","volume":"13","author":"A Monroe","year":"2014","unstructured":"Monroe A, Harvey SA, Lam Y, Muhangi D, Loll D, Kabali AT, et al. \u201cPeople will say that I am proud\u201d: a qualitative study of barriers to bed net use away from home in four Ugandan districts. Malar J. 2014;13(1):82. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1475-2875-13-82.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-2855-2","volume":"18","author":"A Monroe","year":"2019","unstructured":"Monroe A, Mihayo K, Okumu F, Finda M, Moore S, Koenker H, et al. Human behaviour and residual malaria transmission in Zanzibar: findings from in-depth interviews and direct observation of community events. Malar J. 2019;18(1):220. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-019-2855-2.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03943-4","volume":"20","author":"A Monroe","year":"2021","unstructured":"Monroe A, Moore S, Olapeju B, Merritt AP, Okumu F. Unlocking the human factor to increase effectiveness and sustainability of malaria vector control. Malar J. 2021;20(1):404. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-021-03943-4.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"6043_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-36356-9","volume":"14","author":"HJT Unwin","year":"2023","unstructured":"Unwin HJT, Sherrard-Smith E, Churcher TS, Ghani AC. Quantifying the direct and indirect protection provided by insecticide treated bed nets against malaria. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):676. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-023-36356-9.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"6043_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040229","author":"GF Killeen","year":"2007","unstructured":"Killeen GF, Smith TA, Ferguson HM, Mshinda H, Abdulla S, Lengeler C, et al. Preventing childhood malaria in africa by protecting adults from mosquitoes with insecticide-treated nets dushoff J, editor. PLoS Med. 2007. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040229.","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"6043_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.68.121","volume":"68","author":"WA Hawley","year":"2003","unstructured":"Hawley WA, Phillips-Howard PA, ter Kuile FO, Terlouw DJ, Vulule JM, Ombok M, et al. Community-wide effects of permethrin-treated bed nets on child mortality and malaria morbidity in western Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003;68:121\u20137.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"6043_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gimnig JE, Otieno P, Were V, Marwanga D, Abong\u2019o D, Wiegand R, et al. The Effect of Indoor Residual Spraying on the Prevalence of Malaria Parasite Infection, Clinical Malaria and Anemia in an Area of Perennial Transmission and Moderate Coverage of Insecticide Treated Nets in Western Kenya Snounou G, editor. PLoS ONE. 2016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0145282","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0145282"},{"key":"6043_CR54","unstructured":"The PMI VectorLink Project. 2021. Malawi Annual Entomological Monitoring Report,. Rockville, MD: USA: Abt Associates Inc."},{"key":"6043_CR55","unstructured":"National Statistical Office. 2020. Malawi Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, Survey Findings Report. Zomba, Malawi: National Statistical Office."},{"key":"6043_CR56","unstructured":"National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP), ICF. 2018. Malawi Malaria Indicator Survey 2017. Lilongwe, Malawi, and Rockville, Maryland, USA: NMCP and ICF."},{"key":"6043_CR57","unstructured":"U.S. 2022. President\u2019s Malaria Initiative, VectorLink. Malawi Annual Entomological Monitoring Report."}],"container-title":["Malaria Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12936-026-06043-3","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-026-06043-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12936-026-06043-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T09:22:45Z","timestamp":1792056165000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12936-026-06043-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["6043"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-026-06043-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["1475-2875"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1475-2875","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 July 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 July 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The MBS in Malawi received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval from the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health IRB (IRB #15731), and from the National Health Sciences Research Committee (NHSRC #19\/11\/2247) prior to survey data collection. Voluntary written informed consent was obtained from each adult respondent, and parental consent with informed assent from each respondent less than 18\u00a0years of age. Interviewers read a written informed consent script to each respondent to obtain informed consent prior to interviewing them. Respondents\u2019 confidentiality was protected in part because no personal identifiers were collected in the data collection tool and access to completed questionnaires was limited to only the research staff.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"361"}}