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Fiber optical probes provide quantitative autofluorescence measurements for PG detection owing to its high sensitivity and high excitation light cut-off efficiency at a fixed detection distance. However, an optical fiber probe lacks the imaging capability and cannot map the autofluorescence distribution on top of normal tissue background. Therefore, there is a need for intraoperative mapping of PGs with high sensitivity and imaging resolution.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>We have developed a fluorescence scanning and projection (FSP) system that combines a scanning probe and a co-axial projector for intraoperative localization and in situ display of PGs. Some of the key performance characteristics, including spatial resolution and sensitivity for detection, spatial resolution for imaging, dynamic time latency, and PG localization capability, are characterized and verified by benchtop experiments. Clinical utility of the system is simulated by a fluorescence-guided PG localization surgery on a tissue-simulating phantom and validated in an ex vivo experiment.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The system is able to detect indocyanine green (ICG) solution of 5\u00a0pM at a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Additionally, it has a maximal projection error of 0.92\u00a0mm, an averaged projection error of 0.5\u2009\u00b1\u20090.23\u00a0mm, and an imaging resolution of 748\u00a0\u03bcm at a working distance ranging from 35 to 55\u00a0cm. The dynamic testing yields a short latency of 153\u2009\u00b1\u200954\u00a0ms, allowing for intraoperative scanning on target tissue during a surgical intervention. The simulated fluorescence-guided PG localization surgery has validated the system\u2019s capability to locate PG phantom with operating room ambient light interference. The simulation experiment on the PG phantom yields a position detection bias of 0.36\u2009\u00b1\u20090.17\u00a0mm, and an area intersection over unit (IoU) of 76.6%\u2009\u00b1\u20096.4%. Fluorescence intensity attenuates exponentially with the thickness of covered tissue over the PG phantom, indicating the need to remove surrounding tissue in order to reveal the weak autofluorescence signal from PGs. The ex vivo experiment demonstrates the technical feasibility of the FSP system for intraoperative PG localization with accuracy.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>We have developed a novel probe-based imaging and navigation system with high sensitivity for fluorescence detection, capability for fluorescence image reconstruction, multimodal image fusion and in situ PG display function. Our studies have demonstrated its clinical potential for intraoperative localization and in situ display of PGs in thyroidectomy or parathyroidectomy.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12938-022-01004-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]],"date-time":"2022-06-16T17:02:32Z","timestamp":1655398952000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Autofluorescence detection and co-axial projection for intraoperative localization of parathyroid gland"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Wei","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaopeng","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pengfei","family":"Shao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ronald X.","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"1004_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2019.0067","volume":"30","author":"Y Li","year":"2020","unstructured":"Li Y, Teng D, Ba J, Chen B, Du J, He L, Lai X, Teng X, Shi X, Li Y, et al. 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