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However, the clinical conversion of specific types of GNPs has been hindered due to their potential liver toxicity. The origin of their hepatotoxicity and the underlying key factors are still ambiguous. Because the size, shape, and surfactant of GNPs all affect their properties and cytotoxicity. An effective and sensitive platform that can provide deep insights into the cause of GNPs\u2019 hepatotoxicity in vitro is therefore highly desired.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Here, hepatocyte organoid models (Hep-orgs) were constructed to evaluate the shape-dependent hepatotoxicity of GNPs. Two types of GNPs with different nanomorphology, gold nanospheres (GNSs) and spiny gold nanobranches (GNBs), were synthesized as the representative samples. Their shape-dependent effects on mice Hep-orgs\u2019 morphology, cellular cytoskeletal structure, mitochondrial structure, oxidative stress, and metabolism were carefully investigated.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The results showed that GNBs with higher spikiness and tip curvature exhibited more significant cytotoxicity compared to the rounded GNSs. The spike structure of GNBs leads to a mitochondrial damage, oxidative stress, and metabolic disorder in Hep-orgs. Meanwhile, similar trends can be observed in HepG2 cells and mice models, demonstrating the reliability of the Hep-orgs.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Hep-orgs can serve as an effective platform for exploring the interactions between GNPs and liver cells in a 3D perspective, filling the gap between 2D cell models and animal models. This work further revealed that organoids can be used as an indispensable tool to rapidly screen and explore the toxic mechanism of nanomaterials before considering their biomedical functionalities.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02363-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,5]],"date-time":"2024-03-05T05:02:08Z","timestamp":1709614928000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Spike structure of gold nanobranches induces hepatotoxicity in mouse hepatocyte organoid models"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Rui","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruibo","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dandan","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yeting","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shengyan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaolu","family":"Zhuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M. 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