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Here, we present the significance of the temporal aspect of DC maturation for the most essential subsequent timepoint, namely at interaction with responding T cells or after CD40-Ligand restimulation. Mostly, DC maturation is still being achieved by activation processes which lasts 24\u00a0h to 48\u00a0h. We hypothesized this amount of time is excessive from a biological standpoint and could be the underlying cause for functional exhaustion. Indeed, shorter maturation periods resulted in extensive capacity of monocyte-derived DCs to produce inflammatory cytokines after re-stimulation with CD40-Ligand. This effect was most evident for the primary type 1 polarizing cytokine, IL-12p70. This capacity reached peak at 6\u00a0h and dropped sharply with longer exposure to initial maturation stimuli (up to 48\u00a0h). The 6\u00a0h maturation protocol reflected superiority in subsequent functionality tests. Namely, DCs displayed twice the allostimulatory capacity of 24\u00a0h- and 48\u00a0h-matured DCs. Similarly, type 1 T cell response measured by IFN-\u03b3 production was 3-fold higher when CD4<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> T cells had been stimulated with shortly matured DC and over 8-fold greater in case of CD8<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> T cells, compared to longer matured DCs. The extent of melanoma-specific CD8<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> cytotoxic T cell induction was also greater in case of 6\u00a0h DC maturation. The major limitation of the study is that it lacks in vivo evidence, which we aim to examine in the future. Our findings show an unexpectedly significant impact of temporal exposure to activation signals for subsequent DC functionality, which we believe can be readily integrated into existing knowledge on in vitro\/ex vivo DC manipulation for various uses. We also believe this has important implications for DC vaccine design for future clinical trials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-024-05368-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]],"date-time":"2024-06-06T11:05:25Z","timestamp":1717671925000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Factor of time in dendritic cell (DC) maturation: short-term activation of DCs significantly improves type 1 cytokine production and T cell responses"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Primo\u017e","family":"Po\u017eenel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaja","family":"Zajc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1908-4254","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Urban","family":"\u0160vajger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"5368_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12888","volume":"154","author":"M Collin","year":"2018","unstructured":"Collin M, Bigley V. 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