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With approximately one million new cases projected in 2024, worldwide mortality of HNSCC is estimated to reach 50% of detected cases the same year. Patients with early-stage tumours showed a 50\u201360% five-year survival rate in the US. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have shown promising results in prolonging survival in a subset of patients with recurrent or metastatic disease. However, challenges remain, particularly the limited efficacy of PD-1\/PD-L1 blockade therapies. PD-L1 protein expression has been shown to be limited in its predictive power for ICI therapies. Emerging evidence shows that intricate characterisation of the tumour microenvironment (TME) is fundamental to understand interacting cells. This study aims to bridge the gap in understanding the tumor microenvironment by identifying distinct spatial patterns of PD-1\/PD-L1 interactions and their association with immunotherapy responses in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC).<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>In this study, we sought to apply a more nuanced approach to understanding cellular interactions by mapping PD-1\/PD-L1 interactions across whole-slide HNSCC tissue samples collected prior to ICI therapy. We used a combination of spatial proteomics (Akoya Biosciences) and an in situ proximity ligation assay (isPLA, Navinci Diagnostics) to visualise PD-1\/PD-L1 interactions across cell types and cellular neighbourhoods within the tumour TME.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Our findings indicate the existence of isPLA<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup> PD-1\/PD-L1 interactions between macrophages\/CD3 T cell-enriched neighbourhoods and tumour cells at the tumour-stroma boundaries in ICI-resistant tumours. The presence of these dense macrophage-tumour layers, which are either absent or dispersed in responders, indicates a barrier that may restrict immune cell infiltration and promote immune escape mechanisms. In contrast, responders had abundant B and T cell aggregates, predominantly around the tumour edges linked to enhanced immune responses to ICI therapy and better clinical outcomes.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>This study highlights the utility of isPLA in detecting distinct tumour-immune interactions within the TME, offering new cellular interaction metrics for stratifying and optimising immunotherapy strategies.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-06186-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,12]],"date-time":"2025-02-12T11:47:54Z","timestamp":1739360874000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Spatial interaction mapping of PD-1\/PD-L1 in head and neck cancer reveals the role of macrophage-tumour barriers associated with immunotherapy response"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Vahid Yaghoubi","family":"Naei","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rafael","family":"Tubelleza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Monkman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Habib","family":"Sadeghirad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meg L.","family":"Donovan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tony","family":"Blick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agata","family":"Wicher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Bodbin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amelie","family":"Viratham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Stad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Subham","family":"Basu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Cooper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catherine","family":"Barnett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ken","family":"O\u2019Byrne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rahul","family":"Ladwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Majid Ebrahimi","family":"Warkiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brett G. 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