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However, patients receiving paclitaxel often develop an acute pain syndrome for which there are few treatment options. Astrocytes play an important role in the pathogenesis of pain in multiple preclinical models, as well as in paclitaxel-treated rodents. However, it is still unclear what the exact contribution of astrocytes may be in paclitaxel-associated acute pain syndrome (P-APS).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>P-APS was modeled by a single systemic or intrathecal injection of paclitaxel and astrocyte contribution tested by immunohistochemical, pharmacological, and behavioral approaches. Cell cultures were also prepared to assess whether paclitaxel treatment directly activates astrocytes and whether intrathecal injection of paclitaxel-treated astrocytes produces pain that is reminiscent of P-APS.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Systemic injection of paclitaxel resulted in increased expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (a common marker of astrocytic activation), as well as both systemic or intrathecal injection of paclitaxel induced pain hypersensitivity indicated by the development of mechanical allodynia, which was significantly reversed by the astrocytic inhibitor L-\u03b1-AA. Cultured astrocytes were activated by paclitaxel with significant increases in protein levels for tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 (TNF-\u03b1) and stromal-derived cell factor 1 (SDF-1). Importantly, intrathecal injection of paclitaxel-activated astrocytes produced mechanical allodynia that was reversed by TNF-\u03b1 and SDF-1 neutralizing antibodies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Our results suggest for the first time that paclitaxel can directly activate astrocytes, which are sufficient to produce acute pain by releasing TNF-\u03b1 and SDF-1. Targeting astrocytes and these cytokines may offer new treatments for P-APS.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-019-1619-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,10]],"date-time":"2019-11-10T04:03:53Z","timestamp":1573358633000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Paclitaxel-activated astrocytes produce mechanical allodynia in mice by releasing tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 and stromal-derived cell factor 1"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Xiaojuan","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raquel","family":"Tonello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuejuan","family":"Ling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yong-Jing","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4486-8288","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Temugin","family":"Berta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"1619_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pain.2004.01.021","volume":"109","author":"PM Dougherty","year":"2004","unstructured":"Dougherty PM, Cata JP, Cordella JV, Burton A, Weng HR. 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