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Mitophagy is a crucial regulator of inflammation, and dysregulated mitophagy may cause immunosuppression, but whether mitophagy is linked with morphine-induced immunosuppression in the brain remains unknown. NLRX1 is the only mitochondrially localized NOD family receptor protein which serves as a critical regulator in immunity and mitophagy activation, but it remains an enigma how NLRX1 functions in the crosstalk between microglial inflammatory defense and mitophagy in the presence of morphine.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Primary microglia and astrocytes, BV2 and MA cell lines were utilized. Mice were stimulated with repeated morphine treatment to mimic chronic morphine exposure, and activation of mitophagy, lysosomal functions, and inflammation were assayed in specific brain regions and immune organs with or without NLRX1-silencing.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Morphine induced microglial mitophagy in a LC3 (microtubule-associated proteins light chain 3)-dependent manner, which was mediated by NLRX1. Contrastingly, morphine impaired lysosomal functions, including generation, acidification and mitophagosome\u2013lysosome fusion, thus leading to insufficient mitophagy activation in microglia. NLRX1-silencing inhibited mitophagy activity and rescued lysosomal functions including generation and acidification in microglia. The NLRX1-mediated incomplete mitophagy in microglial cells contributed to immunosuppression and vulnerability towards pathogenic challenge after morphine treatment. In vivo, NLRX1-mediated microglial mitophagy activation by morphine was mainly located in the murine brain cortex, striatum, and cerebellum, where NLRX1 functioned as a negative immune regulator and facilitated septic shock. Collectively, microglial immune responses to septic shock were amenable to NLRX1 silencing in the brain with morphine treatment.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Morphine activated insufficient mitophagy in microglia which was regulated by NLRX1, ultimately leading to host immunosuppression and susceptible conditions in the brain.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-022-02453-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,12]],"date-time":"2022-04-12T17:02:55Z","timestamp":1649782975000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Morphine-induced microglial immunosuppression via activation of insufficient mitophagy regulated by NLRX1"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Jialing","family":"Peng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingrui","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongxuan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingjing","family":"Mo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lihuan","family":"Lan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,12]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"2453_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1093\/pm\/pny132","volume":"20","author":"TR Deer","year":"2019","unstructured":"Deer TR, Pope JE, Hanes MC, et al. 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