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MPs have been detected out in human body and both MPs and NPs showed female reproductive toxicological effects in animal models. Miscarriage (abnormal early embryo loss), accounting for 15-25% pregnant women worldwide, greatly harms human reproduction. However, the adverse effects of NPs on miscarriage have never been explored.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In this study, we identified that polystyrene (PS) plastics particles were present in women villous tissues. Their levels were higher in villous tissues of unexplained recurrent miscarriage (RM) patients vs. healthy control (HC) group. Furthermore, mouse assays further confirmed that exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs, 50\u00a0nm in diameter, 50 or 100\u00a0mg\/kg) indeed induced miscarriage. In mechanism, PS-NPs exposure (50, 100, 150, or 200\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL) increased oxidative stress, decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, and increased apoptosis in human trophoblast cells by activating Bcl-2\/Cleaved-caspase-2\/Cleaved-caspase-3 signaling through mitochondrial pathway. The alteration in this signaling was consistent in placental tissues of PS-NPs-exposed mouse model and in villous tissues of unexplained RM patients. Supplement with Bcl-2 could efficiently suppress apoptosis in PS-NPs-exposed trophoblast cells and reduce apoptosis and alleviate miscarriage in PS-NPs-exposed pregnant mouse model.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Exposure to PS-NPs activated Bcl-2\/Cleaved-caspase-2\/Cleaved-caspase-3, leading to excessive apoptosis in human trophoblast cells and in mice placental tissues, further inducing miscarriage.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-024-00574-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,7]],"date-time":"2024-03-07T08:05:08Z","timestamp":1709798708000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":129,"title":["Exposure to high dose of polystyrene nanoplastics causes trophoblast cell apoptosis and induces miscarriage"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Shukun","family":"Wan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoqing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weina","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manli","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingsong","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongyan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chenyang","family":"Mi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhaodian","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7845-3331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huidong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"574_CR1","unstructured":"Plastics-the. 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