{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T17:12:57Z","timestamp":1791565977026,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":172,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]],"date-time":"2025-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738368000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]],"date-time":"2025-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738368000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005416","name":"Norges Forskningsr\u00e5d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GLOBVAC Project 234608"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GLOBVAC Project 234608"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005416","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100021078","name":"Norwegian Institute of Public Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100021078","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Global Health"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>What constitutes state`s global power to shape access to medicines? How was it distributed between states and how did this change from 2000 to 2019? In this comparative case study, we explored the powers of China, India and the United States, and discuss whether our findings from the pre-pandemic era were reflected in the global COVID-19 response related to pharmaceuticals. We used an analytical framework from the international relations literature on structural power, and assessed the following power structures after adapting them to the context of access to medicines: finance, production, financial protection, knowledge, trade and official development assistance.\n<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>We found that from 2000 to 2019 there had been a power-shift towards China and India in terms of finance and production of pharmaceuticals, and that in particular China had increased its powers regarding knowledge and financial protection and reimbursement. The United States remained powerful in terms of finance and knowledge. The data on trade and official development assistance indicate an increasingly powerful China also within these structures. During the COVID-19 pandemic, we found that the patterns from previous decades were continued in terms of cutting-edge innovation coming out of the United States. Trade restrictions from the United States and India contrasted our findings as well as the limited effective aid from the United States.<\/jats:p>\n            <jats:p>Building on our findings on structural powers, we argue that both structural power and political decisions shaped access to medical technologies during the COVID-19\u00a0pandemic. We also examined the roles and positions of the three states regarding developments in global health governance on the COVAX mechanism, the TRIPS Agreement waiver and the pandemic accord in this context.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>From 2000-2019, China and India increased their structural powers to shape global access to medical technologies. The recent COVID-19\u00a0pandemic demonstrated that both structural power and political decisions shaped global access to COVID-19 technologies.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-024-01092-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]],"date-time":"2025-02-01T17:01:28Z","timestamp":1738429288000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["States, global power and access to medicines: a comparative case study of China, India and the United States, 2000\u20132019"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-8724-475X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Berit S. H.","family":"Hembre","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maulik","family":"Chokshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven J.","family":"Hoffman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatima","family":"Suleman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steinar","family":"Andresen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kristin","family":"Sandberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John-Arne","family":"R\u00f8ttingen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"1092_CR1","unstructured":"t Hoen E. TRIPS, pharmaceutical patents, and access to essential medicines: a long way from Seattle to Doha. Chi J Int'l L. 2002;3:27."},{"key":"1092_CR2","unstructured":"Chan M. Ten years in public health 2007\u20132017: report by Dr Margaret Chan Director-General World Health Organization. World Health Organization; 2018. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/ten-years-in-public-health-2007-2017. Accessed"},{"key":"1092_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wirtz VJ, Hogerzeil HV, Gray AL, Bigdeli M, de Joncheere CP, Ewen MA, et al. Essential medicines for universal health coverage. 2017. p. 403\u2009\u2013\u200976. https:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/journals\/lancet\/article\/PIIS0140-6736(16)31599-9\/fulltext. Accessed 10067 389.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)31599-9"},{"key":"1092_CR4","unstructured":"WB. GDP (current US$). World Bank Data; 2019. https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD. Accessed 29 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR5","unstructured":"WTO. Agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights. WTO; 2024. https:\/\/www.wto.org\/english\/docs_e\/legal_e\/27-trips_01_e.htm. Accessed 30 Aug 2024."},{"key":"1092_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1747-1796.2002.tb00147.x","volume":"5","author":"FM Abbott","year":"2002","unstructured":"Abbott FM. The TRIPs agreement, access to medicines, and the WTO Doha ministerial conference. J World Intellectual property. 2002;5:15\u201352.","journal-title":"J World Intellectual property."},{"key":"1092_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1093\/ia\/iiy212","volume":"95","author":"JS Nye Jr","year":"2019","unstructured":"Nye JS Jr. The rise and fall of American hegemony from Wilson to Trump. Int Affairs. 2019;95:63\u201380.","journal-title":"Int Affairs"},{"key":"1092_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nye JS. The rise of China\u2019s soft power. In: Soft power and great-power competition: shifting sands in the balance of Power between the United States and China. Singapore. Springer; 2023. p. 97\u20139.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-0714-4_15"},{"key":"1092_CR9","unstructured":"Zakaria F. The rise of the rest. In: Debating a post-American world. Routledge; 2013. p. 14\u201323."},{"key":"1092_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-7182-9","volume-title":"Asian century\u2026 on a knife-edge: a 360 degree analysis of Asia's recent economic development","author":"J West","year":"2018","unstructured":"West J. Asian century\u2026 on a knife-edge: a 360 degree analysis of Asia\u2019s recent economic development. Basingstoke: Springer Nature; 2018."},{"key":"1092_CR11","unstructured":"UN Secretary-General. The United Nations secretary-general\u2019s high-level panel on access to medicines report: promoting innovation and access to health technologies. 2016 UNSG-HLP-Report-FINAL-12-Sept-2016. 2016."},{"issue":"4","key":"1092_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1093\/heapro\/14.4.285","volume":"14","author":"I Kickbusch","year":"1999","unstructured":"Kickbusch I, de Leeuw E. Global public health: revisiting healthy public policy at the global level. Health Promot Int. 1999;14(4):285\u20138.","journal-title":"Health Promot Int"},{"key":"1092_CR13","unstructured":"Moon S. Medicines as global public goods: the historical evolution of and contemporary debates on technological innovation for global health. In: CID research fellow and graduate student working paper series. 2009."},{"key":"1092_CR14","unstructured":"t Hoen E. TRIPS, pharmaceutical patents, and access to essential medicines: a long way from Seattle to Doha. Chi J Int'l L. 2002;3:27."},{"key":"1092_CR15","first-page":"481","volume":"20","author":"SK Sell","year":"2001","unstructured":"Sell SK. TRIPS and the access to medicines campaign. Wis Int\u2019l LJ. 2001;20:481\u2013522.","journal-title":"Wis Int\u2019l LJ"},{"key":"1092_CR16","first-page":"163","volume":"5","author":"GC Chaves","year":"2008","unstructured":"Chaves GC, Vieira MF, Reis R. Access to medicines and intellectual property in Brazil: reflections and strategies of civil society. SUR-Int\u2019l J Hum Rts. 2008;5:163\u201389.","journal-title":"SUR-Int\u2019l J Hum Rts"},{"key":"1092_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315588483","volume-title":"Informal norms in global governance: human rights, intellectual property rules and access to medicines","author":"W Hein","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hein W. Informal norms in global governance: human rights, intellectual property rules and access to medicines. Farnham: Routledge; 2016."},{"key":"1092_CR18","first-page":"175","volume":"11","author":"TK Mirabile","year":"2002","unstructured":"Mirabile TK. Aids, Africa, and access to medicines. Mich St U Det CLJ Int\u2019l L. 2002;11:175\u2013229.","journal-title":"Mich St U Det CLJ Int\u2019l L."},{"key":"1092_CR19","first-page":"326","volume":"3","author":"M Gk","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gk M. Product patents and access to medicines in India: a critical review of the implementation of TRIPS patent regime. Law Dev Rev. 2010;3:326\u201368.","journal-title":"Law Dev Rev"},{"key":"1092_CR20","volume-title":"Global health and international relations","author":"K Lee","year":"2013","unstructured":"Lee K, McInnes C. Global health and international relations. Hoboken: Wiley; 2013."},{"key":"1092_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.13.127944","volume":"92","author":"I Kickbusch","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kickbusch I. BRICS\u2019 contributions to the global health agenda. Bull World Health Organ. 2014;92:463\u20134.","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"1092_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2164","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)60075-1","volume":"384","author":"R Marten","year":"2014","unstructured":"Marten R, McIntyre D, Travassos C, Shishkin S, Longde W, Reddy S, Vega J. An assessment of progress towards universal health coverage in Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS). Lancet. 2014;384:2164\u201371.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"1092_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/czt063","volume":"29","author":"NF Watt","year":"2014","unstructured":"Watt NF, Gomez EJ, McKee M. Global health in foreign policy\u2013and foreign policy in health? Evidence from the BRICS. Health Policy Plan. 2014;29:763\u201373.","journal-title":"Health Policy Plan"},{"key":"1092_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.15171\/ijhpm.2017.145","volume":"7","author":"VG Rodwin","year":"2018","unstructured":"Rodwin VG, Fabre G, Ayoub RF. BRIC health systems and big pharma: a challenge for health policy and management. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2018;7:201\u20136.","journal-title":"Int J Health Policy Manag"},{"key":"1092_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1744-8603-9-15","volume":"9","author":"A Harmer","year":"2013","unstructured":"Harmer A, Xiao Y, Missoni E, Tediosi F. BRICS without straw\u2019? A systematic literature review of newly emerging economies\u2019 influence in global health. Global Health. 2013;9: 15.","journal-title":"Global Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"1092_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1177\/00094455231187054","volume":"59","author":"HJ Freddy","year":"2023","unstructured":"Freddy HJ, Thomas CJ. Status competition: the BRICS\u2019Quest for influence in global governance. China Rep. 2023;59(4):388\u2013401.","journal-title":"China Rep"},{"key":"1092_CR27","unstructured":"Pei M. Minxin Pei on why China will not surpass the United States. The Economist; 2021. https:\/\/www.economist.com\/by-invitation\/2021\/08\/30\/minxin-pei-on-why-china-will-not-surpass-the-united-states?utm_medium=cpc.adword.pd&utm_source=google&ppccampaignID=18151738051&ppcadID=&utm_campaign=a.22brand_pmax&utm_content=conversion.direct-response.anonymous&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIvq3c4O_t_wIVgQXmCh3OKQKBEAAYASAAEgIEefD_BwE&gclsrc=aw.ds. Accessed 20 Jan 2024."},{"key":"1092_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1177\/1350508411429395","volume":"19","author":"T Jackson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Jackson T. Postcolonialism and organizational knowledge in the wake of China\u2019s presence in Africa: interrogating South-South relations. Organization. 2012;19:181\u2013204.","journal-title":"Organization"},{"key":"1092_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1758-2652-13-35","volume":"13","author":"B Waning","year":"2010","unstructured":"Waning B, Diedrichsen E, Moon S. A lifeline to treatment: the role of Indian generic manufacturers in supplying antiretroviral medicines to developing countries. J Int AIDS Soc. 2010;13: 35.","journal-title":"J Int AIDS Soc"},{"key":"1092_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/11750.001.0001","volume-title":"Plagues and the paradox of progress: why the world is getting healthier in worrisome ways","author":"TJ Bollyky","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bollyky TJ. Plagues and the paradox of progress: why the world is getting healthier in worrisome ways. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 2018."},{"key":"1092_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002032","volume":"13","author":"S Iyengar","year":"2016","unstructured":"Iyengar S, Tay-Teo K, Vogler S, Beyer P, Wiktor S, de Joncheere K, Hill S. Prices, costs, and affordability of new medicines for hepatitis C in 30 countries: an economic analysis. PLoS Med. 2016;13: e1002032.","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"1092_CR32","unstructured":"Verbeek J, Rodarte I. Increasingly, inequality within, not across, countries is rising. WB; 2015. https:\/\/blogs.worldbank.org\/developmenttalk\/increasingly-inequality-within-not-across-countries-rising. Accessed 25 Jan 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR33","unstructured":"Moon S, t Hoen E. The global politics of access to medicines: from 1.0 to 2.0. 2018."},{"key":"1092_CR34","unstructured":"WHO. Consultative expert working group on research and development: financing and coordination (CEWG). WHO; 2012. https:\/\/apps.who.int\/gb\/ebwha\/pdf_files\/WHA65\/A65_24-en.pdf?ua=1. Accessed 12 Feb 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k3840","volume":"362","author":"B Roehr","year":"2018","unstructured":"Roehr B. US hospitals launch non-profit generic drug producer to counter rising prices. BMJ. 2018;362: k3840.","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"1092_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2016-000217","volume":"2","author":"G Ooms","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ooms G, Beiersmann C, Flores W, Hanefeld J, Muller O, Mulumba M, et al. Synergies and tensions between universal health coverage and global health security: why we need a second \u2018maximizing positive synergies\u2019 initiative. BMJ Glob Health. 2017;2: e000217.","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Health"},{"issue":"Suppl 3","key":"1092_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1111\/jlme.12269","volume":"43","author":"N Daulaire","year":"2015","unstructured":"Daulaire N, Bang A, Tomson G, Kalyango JN, Cars O. Universal access to effective antibiotics is essential for tackling antibiotic resistance. J Law Med Ethics. 2015;43(Suppl 3):17\u201321.","journal-title":"J Law Med Ethics"},{"key":"1092_CR38","unstructured":"Economist. Don\u2019t be fooled by the trade deal between America and China. The Economist; 2020. https:\/\/www.economist.com\/leaders\/2020\/01\/02\/dont-be-fooled-by-the-trade-deal-between-america-and-china. Accessed 20 Jan 2023."},{"key":"1092_CR39","unstructured":"Nishino A. The great medicines migration how China took control of key global pharmaceutical supplies. Nikkei; 2022. https:\/\/asia.nikkei.com\/static\/vdata\/infographics\/chinavaccine-3\/. Accessed 20 Dec 2023."},{"key":"1092_CR40","unstructured":"Waller H. Peter Navarro says coronavirus shows US offshored too much. Bloomberg; 2020. https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2020-02-23\/peter-navarro-says-coronavirus-shows-u-s-offshored-too-much. Accessed 24 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR41","unstructured":"Findlay SAY, Sun. Coronavirus outbreak causes supply problems for India`s drugmakers. The Financial Times; 2020. https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/ef9735fa-55e8-11ea-a528-dd0f971febbc. Accessed 3 Mar 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR42","unstructured":"Huang Y. The coronavirus outbreak could disrupt the U.S. drug supply. CFR; 2022. https:\/\/www.cfr.org\/in-brief\/coronavirus-disrupt-us-drug-supply-shortages-fda. Accessed 26 Sep 2023."},{"key":"1092_CR43","unstructured":"Summers T. The global fund and PEPFAR. CSIS; 2017. https:\/\/www.csis.org\/analysis\/global-fund-and-pepfar. Accessed 1 Dec 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s40901-016-0022-7","volume":"55","author":"K Gopakumar","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gopakumar K. Twenty years of TRIPS agreement and access to medicine: a development perspective. Indian J Int Law. 2015;55:367\u2013404.","journal-title":"Indian J Int Law"},{"key":"1092_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315136103","volume-title":"The politics of the pharmaceutical industry and access to medicines: World pharmacy and India","author":"H L\u00f6fgren","year":"2017","unstructured":"L\u00f6fgren H. The politics of the pharmaceutical industry and access to medicines: World pharmacy and India. London: Taylor and Francis; 2017."},{"key":"1092_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1186\/1758-2652-14-15","volume":"14","author":"J Hoen Et, Berger","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hoen Et, Berger J, Calmy A, Moon S. Driving a decade of change: HIV\/AIDS, patents and access to medicines for all. J Int AIDS Soc. 2011;14:15.","journal-title":"J Int AIDS Soc"},{"key":"1092_CR47","volume-title":"The WTO and India\u2019s pharmaceuticals industry: patent protection, TRIPS, and developing countries","author":"S Chaudhuri","year":"2005","unstructured":"Chaudhuri S. The WTO and India\u2019s pharmaceuticals industry: patent protection, TRIPS, and developing countries. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; 2005."},{"key":"1092_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.22326","volume":"100","author":"S Babovic","year":"2011","unstructured":"Babovic S, Wasan KM. Impact of the trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS) agreement on India as a supplier of generic antiretrovirals. J Pharm Sci. 2011;100:816\u201321.","journal-title":"J Pharm Sci"},{"key":"1092_CR49","first-page":"326","volume":"3","author":"K Gopakumar","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gopakumar K. Product patents and access to medicines in India: a critical review of the implementation of TRIPS patent regime. Law Dev Rev. 2010;3:326\u201368.","journal-title":"Law Dev Rev"},{"key":"1092_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/19426720-02304005","volume-title":"Global health governance in international society","author":"J Youde","year":"2017","unstructured":"Youde J. Global health governance in international society. Colo: Boulder; 2017."},{"key":"1092_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"010303","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.03.010303","volume":"3","author":"SL Barber","year":"2013","unstructured":"Barber SL, Huang B, Santoso B, Laing R, Paris V, Wu C. The reform of the essential medicines system in China: a comprehensive approach to universal coverage. J Glob Health. 2013;3:010303.","journal-title":"J Glob Health"},{"key":"1092_CR52","unstructured":"Huang Y. Chinese pharma: a global health game changer cfr.org. Council on Foreign Relations; 2015. https:\/\/www.cfr.org\/expert-brief\/chinese-pharma-global-health-game-changer. Accessed 10 Jan 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR53","volume-title":"China's Innovative Turn and the Changing Pharmaceutical Landscape","author":"PK Yu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Yu PK. China\u2019s Innovative Turn and the Changing Pharmaceutical Landscape. Hanover, PA: University of the Pacific McGeorge School of Law; 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR54","first-page":"147","volume":"43","author":"J-A Lee","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lee J-A. Shifting IP battlegrounds in the US-China trade war. Colum JL Arts. 2019;43:147.","journal-title":"Colum JL Arts"},{"key":"1092_CR55","first-page":"169","volume-title":"Pharmaceutical policy in China","author":"Y Fang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Fang Y. Pharmaceutical policy in China. Berlin: Springer; 2017. p. 169\u201391."},{"key":"1092_CR56","unstructured":"The Economist. China is sprucing up its pharma sector. 2018. https:\/\/www.economist.com\/business\/2018\/08\/30\/china-is-sprucing-up-its-pharma-sector. Accessed."},{"key":"1092_CR57","volume-title":"States and Markets","author":"S Strange","year":"2015","unstructured":"Strange S. States and Markets. London: Bloomsbury Publishing; 2015."},{"key":"1092_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1080\/13600829608443105","volume":"10","author":"C May","year":"1996","unstructured":"May C. Strange fruit: Susan Strange\u2019s theory of structural power in the international political economy. Global Soc. 1996;10:167\u201389.","journal-title":"Global Soc"},{"key":"1092_CR59","unstructured":"Comission on Human Security. Human security now. The United Nations; 2003. https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/sites\/reliefweb.int\/files\/resources\/91BAEEDBA50C6907C1256D19006A9353-chs-security-may03.pdf. Accessed 3 Mar 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR60","unstructured":"WTO. China and the WTO. WTO; 2020. https:\/\/www.wto.org\/english\/thewto_e\/countries_e\/china_e.htm. Accessed 26 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR61","unstructured":"Miles T. China pulls WTO suit over claim to be a market economy. Reuters; 2019. https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-usa-china-wto-eu\/china-pulls-wto-suit-over-claim-to-be-a-market-economy-idUSKCN1TI10A. Accessed Feb 20 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR62","unstructured":"WB. Population ages 15\u201364 (% of total population). World Bank Data; 2019. https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/SP.POP.1564.TO.ZS?end=2019&start=2000. Accessed 29 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR63","unstructured":"WB. GDP per capita (current US$). 2018. https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD. Accessed 15 Jan 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2018.05144","volume":"38","author":"GF Anderson","year":"2019","unstructured":"Anderson GF, Hussey P, Petrosyan V. It\u2019s still the prices, stupid: why the US spends so much on Health Care, and a tribute to Uwe Reinhardt. Health Affair. 2019;38:87\u201395.","journal-title":"Health Affair"},{"key":"1092_CR65","unstructured":"Gupta I, Bhatia M. The Indian health care system. International health care system profiles. The Commonwealth Fund; 2020. https:\/\/international.commonwealthfund.org\/countries\/india\/. Accessed 29 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR66","unstructured":"WHO. How much should countries spend on health? World Health Organization; 2003. Accessed 12 Feb 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR67","unstructured":"R\u00f8ttingen, et al. Shared responsibilities for health. Chattham House; 2014. https:\/\/www.chathamhouse.org\/sites\/default\/files\/field\/field_document\/20140521HealthFinancingES.pdf. Accessed 20 Jan 2024."},{"key":"1092_CR68","unstructured":"WB. Current health expenditure (% of GDP). The World Bank; 2020. https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS. Accessed 20 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR69","unstructured":"WB. Domestic general government health expenditure (% of current health expenditure). worldbank.org: World Bank; 2019. https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/SH.XPD.GHED.CH.ZS. Accessed 6 Sep 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR70","unstructured":"YCP Solidiance. Strain on China\u2019s Government budget. ycpsolidiance.com; 2018. https:\/\/ycpsolidiance.com\/article\/healthcare-cost-puts-significant-strain-on-chinas-government-budget. Accessed 5 May 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR71","unstructured":"WB. Current health expenditure per capita (current US$). World Bank Data: The World Bank; 2016. updated 29.02.2020. Current health expenditure per capita (current US$). Accessed 29 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR72","unstructured":"Huang Y. U.S. Companies\u2019 access to health industries and market opportunities in China. https:\/\/www.uscc.gov\/: USCC; 2019. https:\/\/www.uscc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/Yanzhong%20Huang%20-%20U%20S%20-China%20CommissionTestimony.pdf. Accessed 31 Jul 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR73","unstructured":"Department of Commerce. 2016 Top markets report pharmaceuticals. 2016. https:\/\/legacy.trade.gov\/topmarkets\/pharmaceuticals.asp. Accessed 5 May 2018."},{"key":"1092_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e169","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30429-1","volume":"6","author":"A Wagstaff","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wagstaff A, Flores G, Hsu J, Smitz MF, Chepynoga K, Buisman LR, et al. Progress on catastrophic health spending in 133 countries: a retrospective observational study. Lancet Glob Health. 2018;6:e169\u201379.","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"1092_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthpol.2015.07.008","volume":"119","author":"H Yu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Yu H. Universal health insurance coverage for 1.3 billion people: what accounts for China\u2019s success? Health Policy. 2015;119:1145\u201352.","journal-title":"Health Policy"},{"key":"1092_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0193273","volume":"13","author":"X Xiong","year":"2018","unstructured":"Xiong X, Zhang Z, Ren J, Zhang J, Pan X, Zhang L, et al. Impact of universal medical insurance system on the accessibility of medical service supply and affordability of patients in China. PLoS One. 2018;13: e0193273.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"1092_CR77","unstructured":"Berchick ER, AH, Emily, Barnett JC. Health insurance coverage in the United States: 2017. www.census.gov: The United States Census Bureau; 2018. https:\/\/www.census.gov\/library\/publications\/2018\/demo\/p60-264.html. Accessed 12 Dec 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2019.00904","volume":"39","author":"KN Griffith","year":"2020","unstructured":"Griffith KN, Jones DK, Bor JH, Sommers BD. Changes in health insurance coverage, access to care, and income-based disparities among US Adults, 2011\u201317. Health Aff (Millwood). 2020;39:319\u201326.","journal-title":"Health Aff (Millwood)."},{"key":"1092_CR79","unstructured":"Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Ayushman Bharat \u2013Pradhan Mantri Jan AarogyaYojana (AB-PMJAY) to be launched by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi in Ranchi, Jharkahnd on September 23. 2018. www.pib.gov.in; 2018. https:\/\/pib.gov.in\/newsite\/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=183624. Accessed 12 Dec 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR80","unstructured":"Economist. Modicare. India\u2019s government launches a vast health-insurance scheme. The Economist; 2018. https:\/\/www.economist.com\/asia\/2018\/09\/27\/indias-government-launches-a-vast-health-insurance-scheme. Accessed 29 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR81","unstructured":"WB. Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure). In: World Bank data. The World Bank; 2018. https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/SH.XPD.OOPC.CH.ZS?locations=CN-NO-US-IN. Accessed 29 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR82","unstructured":"WB. Out-of-pocket expenditure per capita, PPP (current international $). World Bank; 2024. https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/SH.XPD.OOPC.PP.CD. Accessed 4 Feb 2024."},{"key":"1092_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2009.04.012","volume":"122","author":"DU Himmelstein","year":"2009","unstructured":"Himmelstein DU, Thorne D, Warren E, Woolhandler S. Medical bankruptcy in the United States, 2007: results of a national study. Am J Med. 2009;122:741\u20136.","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"key":"1092_CR84","unstructured":"National Health Security Administration. Briefing on the development of public health insurance 2018. NHSA; 2018. http:\/\/www.nhsa.gov.cn\/art\/2019\/2\/28\/art_7_942.html. Accessed 12 Dec 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1080\/13648470.2015.1135787","volume":"23","author":"T Ahlin","year":"2016","unstructured":"Ahlin T, Nichter M, Pillai G. Health insurance in India: what do we know and why is ethnographic research needed. Anthropol Med. 2016;23:102\u201324.","journal-title":"Anthropol Med"},{"key":"1092_CR86","unstructured":"Rong Yi SH. China`s commercial health insurance market. Asian Insurance Review; 2019. https:\/\/www.asiainsurancereview.com\/Magazine\/ReadMagazineArticle?aid=41884. Accessed 12 Dec 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR87","unstructured":"WIPO. China becomes top filer of international patents in 2019 amid robust growth for WIPO\u2019s IP services, treaties and finances. Geneva; 2020. Wipo.int. Accessed 7 Apr 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR88","unstructured":"Nature. Natureindex. https:\/\/www.natureindex.com\/faq. Accessed 3 Mar 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR89","unstructured":"FDA. Novel drug approvals for 2018. FDA; 2019. https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/drugs\/developmentapprovalprocess\/druginnovation\/ucm592464.htm. Accessed 20 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR90","unstructured":"Pharmaceutical Technology. The top selling prescription drugs by revenue. 2019. https:\/\/www.pharmaceutical-technology.com\/features\/top-selling-prescription-drugs\/. Accessed 20 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0077247","volume":"8","author":"Y Hu","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hu Y, Scherngell T, Man SN, Wang Y. Is the United States still dominant in the global pharmaceutical innovation network? PLoS One. 2013;8: e77247.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"1092_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2015.10.002","volume":"21","author":"A Gautam","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gautam A, Pan X. The changing model of big pharma: impact of key trends. Drug Discov Today. 2016;21:379\u201384.","journal-title":"Drug Discov Today"},{"key":"1092_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2486","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.7855","volume":"319","author":"J Li","year":"2018","unstructured":"Li J, Qin S, Xu RH, Shen L, Xu J, Bai Y, et al. Effect of Fruquintinib vs Placebo on overall survival in patients with previously treated metastatic colorectal cancer: the FRESCO Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2018;319:2486\u201396.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"1092_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7787","DOI":"10.2147\/CMAR.S215533","volume":"11","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zhang Y, Zou J-Y, Wang Z, Wang Y. Fruquintinib: a novel antivascular endothelial growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor for the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer. Cancer Manage Res. 2019;11:7787.","journal-title":"Cancer Manage Res"},{"key":"1092_CR95","unstructured":"McNeil DG Jr. New strawberry-flavored H.I.V. drugs for babies are offered at $1 a day. 2019. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/11\/29\/health\/AIDS-drugs-children.html. Accessed 29 Nov 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR96","unstructured":"Office for Life Sciences. Life science competitiveness indicators. https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk: Publishing service UK government; 2019. https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/811347\/life-sciences-competitiveness-data-2019.pdf. Accessed 20 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61046-6","volume":"382","author":"J-A R\u00f8ttingen","year":"2013","unstructured":"R\u00f8ttingen J-A, Regmi S, Eide M, Young AJ, Viergever RF, \u00c5rdal C, et al. Mapping of available health research and development data: what\u2019s there, what\u2019s missing, and what role is there for a global observatory? Lancet. 2013;382:1286\u2013307.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"1092_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.15939","volume":"313","author":"H Moses 3rd","year":"2015","unstructured":"Moses H 3, Matheson DH, Cairns-Smith S, George BP, Palisch C, Dorsey ER. The anatomy of medical research: US and international comparisons. JAMA. 2015;313:174\u201389.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"1092_CR99","unstructured":"WIPO. WIPO IP Facts and Fig. 2019. World Intellectual Porperty Organization; 2019. https:\/\/www.wipo.int\/edocs\/pubdocs\/en\/wipo_pub_943_2019.pdf. Accessed 12 Feb 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR100","unstructured":"WIPO. Patent- applications for the top 20 offices, WIPO IP statistics data center. WIPO; 2019. https:\/\/www3.wipo.int\/ipstats\/keysearch.htm?keyId=221. Accessed 12 Feb 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR101","unstructured":"WIPO. IP statistics data center. WIPO; 2019. https:\/\/www3.wipo.int\/ipstats\/. Accessed 3 Mar 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR102","unstructured":"Statista. Domestic and international revenue of the U.S. pharmaceutical industry between 1975 and 2018. Statista; 2020. https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/275560\/domestic-and-international-revenue-of-the-us-pharmaceutical-industry\/. Accessed 20 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR103","unstructured":"IBIS World. Pharmaceutical manufacturing industry in China - market research report. 2019. https:\/\/www.ibisworld.com\/\/."},{"key":"1092_CR104","unstructured":"Government of India Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers Department of Pharmaceuticals. Annual report 2016-17. 2017. https:\/\/pharmaceuticals.gov.in\/."},{"key":"1092_CR105","unstructured":"Daxue Consulting. China\u2019s pharmaceutical industry will be the world\u2019s largest in less than 10 years. daxueconsulting.com; 2022. https:\/\/daxueconsulting.com\/pharmaceutical-industry-china\/. Accessed 10 Mar 2023."},{"key":"1092_CR106","unstructured":"Melchior A. Global handel og medisinsk beredskap i lys av Covid-19. www.nupi.no: Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institutt; 2021. https:\/\/www.nupi.no\/Publikasjoner\/CRIStin-Pub\/Global-handel-og-medisinsk-beredskap-i-lys-av-Covid-19. Accessed 1 Apr 2021."},{"key":"1092_CR107","unstructured":"UN. World input-output database. 2016. http:\/\/www.wiod.org\/database\/wiots16. Accessed 12 Dec 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR108","unstructured":"WHO. China policies to promote local production of pharmaceutical products and protect public health. 2017. Accessed 20 Feb 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR109","unstructured":"India Brand Equity Foundation. Pharmaceuticals. IBEF; 2018. https:\/\/www.ibef.org\/download\/Pharmaceuticals-March-20181.pdf. Accessed 20 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR110","unstructured":"FDA. Safeguarding pharmaceutical supply chains in a global economy. FDA; 2019. https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/news-events\/congressional-testimony\/safeguarding-pharmaceutical-supply-chains-global-economy-10302019. Accessed 12 Feb 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR111","unstructured":"Pharmaceutical Executive. Top 50 global pharma companies 2019. Ranking the brands; 2019. https:\/\/www.rankingthebrands.com\/The-Brand-Rankings.aspx?rankingID=370. Accessed 2 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.5455\/msm.2013.25.286-290","volume":"25","author":"J Karamehic","year":"2013","unstructured":"Karamehic J, Ridic O, Ridic G, Jukic T, Coric J, Subasic D, et al. Financial aspects and the future of the pharmaceutical industry in the United States of America. Mater Sociomed. 2013;25:286\u201390.","journal-title":"Mater Sociomed"},{"key":"1092_CR113","unstructured":"Dickman S. US crackdown on foreign biotech investment makes us poorer, not safer. 2019. https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/stevedickman\/2019\/05\/24\/us-crackdown-on-foreign-biotech-investment-makes-us-poorer-not-safer\/#38ba51fd5581. Accessed 6 Jun 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR114","first-page":"142","volume":"2","author":"Y Liu","year":"2013","unstructured":"Liu Y, Xue Y, Liu G, Ma A. Development of foreign invested hospitals in China: obstacles and coping strategies. J Hosp Adm. 2013;2:142\u201350.","journal-title":"J Hosp Adm"},{"key":"1092_CR115","unstructured":"Abbott FM. Indian policies to promote local production of pharmaceutical products and protect public health. WHO; 2017. p. 3\u201317. https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2963867. Accessed."},{"key":"1092_CR116","unstructured":"Economist. Indian drugmakers need a new prescription. 2018. https:\/\/www.economist.com\/business\/2018\/03\/22\/indian-drugmakers-need-a-new-prescription. Accessed 5 May 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR117","unstructured":"Jones. China further opens its market with new \"Foreign Market Law\". JDSpura; 2020. https:\/\/www.jdsupra.com\/legalnews\/china-further-opens-its-market-with-new-80141\/. Accessed 20 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR118","unstructured":"IFPMA. The pharmaceutical industry and global health. Facts and figs. 2017. IFPMA; 2017. https:\/\/www.ifpma.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/02\/IFPMA-Facts-And-Figures-2017.pdf. Accessed 5 May 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1057\/jphp.2013.13","volume":"34","author":"J Chen","year":"2013","unstructured":"Chen J, Nie X, Yao P, Shi L. TRIPS-plus and access to medicines in China. J Public Health Policy. 2013;34:226\u201338.","journal-title":"J Public Health Policy"},{"key":"1092_CR120","unstructured":"Sammon A. Trump poised to give big pharma big present in India trade deal. Prospect; 2019. https:\/\/prospect.org\/world\/trump-modi-big-pharma-india-trade\/. Accessed 15 Jan 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR121","unstructured":"Economist. Indian drugmakers need a new prescription. The Economist. https:\/\/www.economist.com\/business\/2018\/03\/22\/indian-drugmakers-need-a-new-prescription. Accessed 20 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR122","unstructured":"ITC. List of exporters for the selected product in 2018. Pharmaceutical products. International Trade Centre; 2018. https:\/\/www.trademap.org\/tradestat\/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c30%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1. Accessed 5 May 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR123","unstructured":"WB. World integrated trade solution. https:\/\/wits.worldbank.org: WB; 2017.https:\/\/wits.worldbank.org\/Default.aspx?lang=en. Accessed 12 Dec 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR124","unstructured":"Donor Tracker. United States global health. Donor Tracker. https:\/\/donortracker.org\/united-states\/globalhealth. Accessed 15 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR125","unstructured":"Kaiser Family Foundation. Breaking down the U.S. global health budget by program area. KFF; 2019. https:\/\/www.kff.org\/global-health-policy\/fact-sheet\/the-u-s-government-and-global-health\/ https:\/\/www.kff.org\/global-health-policy\/fact-sheet\/breaking-down-the-u-s-global-health-budget-by-program-area\/#Overview. Accessed 19 Dec 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2595","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32898-2","volume":"390","author":"K Tang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Tang K, Li Z, Li W, Chen L. China\u2019s silk road and global health. Lancet. 2017;390:2595\u2013601.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"1092_CR127","unstructured":"Cheng C. The logic behind China\u2019s foreign aid agency. Carnegie Environment for International Peace: Carnegie; 2019. https:\/\/carnegieendowment.org\/2019\/05\/21\/logic-behind-china-s-foreign-aid-agency-pub-79154. Accessed Dec 19 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asmus G, Fuchs A, M\u00fcller A. BRICS and foreign aid. Forthcoming, BRICs and the global economy, AidData working paper. 2017.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3027620"},{"key":"1092_CR129","unstructured":"CIDCA. China International Development Cooperation Agency. http:\/\/en.cidca.gov.cn\/. Accessed 17 Sep 2023."},{"key":"1092_CR130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.glohj.2019.06.003","volume":"3","author":"E Tambo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Tambo E, Khayeka-Wandabwa C, Muchiri GW, Liu YN, Tang S, Zhou XN. China\u2019s belt and road initiative: incorporating public health measures toward global economic growth and shared prosperity. Glob Health J. 2019;3:46\u20139.","journal-title":"Glob Health J"},{"key":"1092_CR131","unstructured":"OECD. Development finance of countries beyond the DAC. OECD; 2019. https:\/\/www.oecd.org\/development\/non-dac-reporting.htm. Accessed Dec 19"},{"key":"1092_CR132","unstructured":"OECD. Development aid in 2015 continues to grow despite costs for in-donor refugees. 2016. http:\/\/www.oecd.org\/dac\/stats\/ODA-2015-detailed-summary.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2019."},{"key":"1092_CR133","unstructured":"WB. 2019. https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/dt.oda.alld.cd. Accessed 25 Feb 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR134","unstructured":"Politico. How mRNA technology is on the cusp of transforming global health. Brussels: Politico EU; 2022."},{"key":"1092_CR135","unstructured":"Coronavirus (COVID-19) update: FDA authorizes first oral antiviral for treatment of COVID-19 [press release]. Silver Spring, MD; 2021."},{"key":"1092_CR136","unstructured":"Lei J. 35 companies in 12 nations to manufacture Pfizer\u2019s oral COVID-19 drug. 2022."},{"key":"1092_CR137","unstructured":"Brown CP. Why sharing patents for COVID-19 medicines is not enough. Podcast; 2022. Available from: https:\/\/tradetalkspodcast.com\/podcast\/161-why-sharing-patents-for-covid-19-medicines-is-not-enough\/. Cited 280622."},{"key":"1092_CR138","unstructured":"Phamraceutical-technology.com. China approves first anti-viral drug against coronavirus Covid-19. 2020. https:\/\/www.pharmaceutical-technology.com\/news\/china-approves-favilavir-covid-19\/. Accessed 15 Jan 2021."},{"key":"1092_CR139","unstructured":"Zhongming Z, Linong L, Xiaona Y, Wangqiang Z, Wei L. Drug recently shown to reduce coronavirus death risk could run out, experts warn. 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR140","unstructured":"Song W. Covid-19 vaccines: has China made more than other countries combined? BBC. bbc.com; 2021."},{"key":"1092_CR141","first-page":"232","volume":"107","author":"T Parsons","year":"1963","unstructured":"Parsons T. On the concept of political power. Proceedings of the American philosophical society. 1963;107:232\u201362.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the American philosophical society."},{"key":"1092_CR142","unstructured":"Britannica E. Political power. Britannica.com; 2024. https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/political-power. Accessed"},{"key":"1092_CR143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-021-00763-8","volume":"17","author":"F Stein","year":"2021","unstructured":"Stein F. Risky business: COVAX and the financialization of global vaccine equity. Global Health. 2021;17:112.","journal-title":"Global Health"},{"key":"1092_CR144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-022-00801-z","volume":"18","author":"A de Bengy Puyvall\u00e9e","year":"2022","unstructured":"de Bengy Puyvall\u00e9e A, Storeng KT. COVAX, vaccine donations and the politics of global vaccine inequity. Globalization Health. 2022;18:1\u201314.","journal-title":"Globalization Health"},{"key":"1092_CR145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6658070","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6658070","volume":"2021","author":"VK Chattu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chattu VK, Singh B, Kaur J, Jakovljevic M. COVID-19 vaccine, TRIPS, and global health diplomacy: India\u2019s role at the WTO platform. Biomed Res Int. 2021;2021:6658070.","journal-title":"Biomed Res Int"},{"key":"1092_CR146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1335751","volume":"12","author":"Y Huang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Huang Y, Jiang S, Kumah E. China and the WHO pandemic treaty: a dive into stance, underpinnings, and implications. Front Public Health. 2024;12: 1335751.","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"1092_CR147","first-page":"219","volume":"24","author":"K Fajber","year":"2022","unstructured":"Fajber K. Business as usual? Centering human rights to advance global COVID-19 vaccine equity through COVAX. Health Hum Rights. 2022;24:219.","journal-title":"Health Hum Rights"},{"key":"1092_CR148","first-page":"1615","volume-title":"Reimagining global health governance in the age of COVID-19","author":"LO Gostin","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gostin LO, Moon S, Meier BM. Reimagining global health governance in the age of COVID-19. Washington: American Public Health Association; 2020. p. 1615\u20139."},{"key":"1092_CR149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2322","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)01367-2","volume":"397","author":"AD Usher","year":"2021","unstructured":"Usher AD. A beautiful idea: how COVAX has fallen short. Lancet. 2021;397:2322\u20135.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"1092_CR150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.14.020914","volume":"92","author":"J Parry","year":"2014","unstructured":"Parry J. China enters the global vaccine market. Bull World Health Organ. 2014;92:626\u20137.","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"1092_CR151","unstructured":"OECD. Global supply chains at work: a tale of three products to fight COVID-19. Paris; 2022.\u00a0oecd.org."},{"key":"1092_CR152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1080\/17544750.2021.2017309","volume":"15","author":"J Qi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Qi J, Joye S, Van Leuven S. Framing China\u2019s mask diplomacy in Europe during the early covid-19 pandemic: seeking and contesting legitimacy through foreign medical aid amidst soft power promotion. Chin J Communication. 2022;15:205\u201326.","journal-title":"Chin J Communication"},{"key":"1092_CR153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1057\/s41254-021-00224-4","volume":"19","author":"ST Lee","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lee ST. Vaccine diplomacy: nation branding and China\u2019s COVID-19 soft power play. Place Branding Public Dipl. 2023;19:64\u201378.","journal-title":"Place Branding Public Dipl"},{"key":"1092_CR154","unstructured":"Lei J. India restricts drug exports; Fierce Pharma Asia; 2020. https:\/\/www.fiercepharma.com\/pharma-asia\/fiercepharmaasia-india-restricts-drug-exports-roche-s-actemra-fights-covid-19-takeda. Accessed 10 June 2023."},{"key":"1092_CR155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.3390\/epidemiologia2030032","volume":"2","author":"CN Koller","year":"2021","unstructured":"Koller CN, Schwerzmann CJ, Lang ASA, Alexiou E, Krishnakumar J. Addressing different needs: the challenges faced by India as the largest vaccine manufacturer while conducting the world\u2019s biggest COVID-19 vaccination campaign. Epidemiologia. 2021;2:454\u201370.","journal-title":"Epidemiologia"},{"key":"1092_CR156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e489","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(23)00364-X","volume":"23","author":"GO Schaefer","year":"2023","unstructured":"Schaefer GO, Atuire CA, Kaur S, Parker M, Persad G, Smith MJ, et al. The importance of getting the ethics right in a pandemic treaty. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023;23:e489\u201396.","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"1092_CR157","unstructured":"Rogers K. Trump administration signals formal withdrawal from W.H.O. 2020."},{"key":"1092_CR158","unstructured":"Initiatives D. Aid data 2019\u20132020: analysis of trends before and during covid. Development Initiatives; 2024. https:\/\/devinit.org\/resources\/aid-data-2019-2020-analysis-trends-before-during-covid\/. Accessed 7 Aug 2024."},{"issue":"6","key":"1092_CR159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1093\/scipol\/scae020","volume":"51","author":"WB Bonvillian","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bonvillian WB. Operation warp speed: harbinger of American industrial innovation policies. Sci Public Policy. 2024;51(6):1195\u2013211.","journal-title":"Sci Public Policy"},{"key":"1092_CR160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp2027405","volume":"383","author":"M Slaoui","year":"2020","unstructured":"Slaoui M, Hepburn M. Developing safe and effective covid vaccines\u2014operation warp speed\u2019s strategy and approach. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:1701\u20133.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"1092_CR161","unstructured":"Laupkin S. How operation warp speed`s big vaccine contracts could stay secret. npr.org: NPR; 2020. https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/health-shots\/2020\/09\/29\/917899357\/how-operation-warp-speeds-big-vaccine-contracts-could-stay-secret. Accessed 10 Sep 2024."},{"key":"1092_CR162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1017","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00140-6","volume":"9","author":"JH Kim","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kim JH, Hotez P, Batista C, Ergonul O, Figueroa JP, Gilbert S, et al. Operation warp speed: implications for global vaccine security. Lancet Global Health. 2021;9:e1017\u20131021.","journal-title":"Lancet Global Health"},{"key":"1092_CR163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1017\/S1474745622000283","volume":"21","author":"B Mercurio","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mercurio B, Upreti PN. From necessity to flexibility: a reflection on the negotiations for a TRIPS waiver for Covid-19 vaccines and treatments. World Trade Rev. 2022;21:633\u201349.","journal-title":"World Trade Rev"},{"key":"1092_CR164","first-page":"21","volume-title":"Intellectual property, COVID-19, and the next pandemic: diagnosing problems, developing cures","author":"PK Yu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yu PK. China, the TRIPS waiver and the global pandemic response. In: Sunder M, Haochen S, editors. Intellectual property, COVID-19, and the next pandemic: diagnosing problems, developing cures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2023. p. 21\u201352."},{"key":"1092_CR165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Youde J. China\u2019s role in global health governance. Routledge handbook on the politics of global health. London: Routledge; 2018. p. 172\u201380.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315297255-16"},{"key":"1092_CR166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1111\/jwip.12187","volume":"24","author":"HM Haugen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Haugen HM, Does TRIPS. Agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights) prevent COVID\u201019 vaccines as a global public good? J World Intellect Property. 2021;24:195\u2013220.","journal-title":"J World Intellect Property"},{"key":"1092_CR167","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30677-2","volume":"396","author":"SE Vollset","year":"2020","unstructured":"Vollset SE, Goren E, Yuan C-W, Cao J, Smith AE, Hsiao T, et al. Fertility, mortality, migration, and population scenarios for 195 countries and territories from 2017 to 2100: a forecasting analysis for the global burden of disease study. Lancet. 2020;396:1285\u2013306.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"1092_CR168","unstructured":"Zhong J. Transforming the pharma industry. china-embassy.gov.cn; 2022. http:\/\/pt.china-embassy.gov.cn\/kjjl\/202208\/P020220830848298109925.pdf. Accessed 10 Mar 2023."},{"key":"1092_CR169","unstructured":"Aithen Mea. Global trends in R&D. https:\/\/www.iqvia.com\/: IQVIA; 2023. https:\/\/www.iqvia.com\/insights\/the-iqvia-institute\/reports\/global-trends-in-r-and-d-2023. Accessed."},{"key":"1092_CR170","unstructured":"Nye JS. Peak China?: Project Syndicate; 2023. https:\/\/www.project-syndicate.org\/commentary\/peak-china-debate-calls-for-careful-assessment-by-joseph-s-nye-2023-01. Accessed 1 Nov 2023."},{"key":"1092_CR171","unstructured":"Bell A. U.S. Pharmacopeia medicine supply map releases global API manufacturing findings. Rockville; 2022.\u00a0ups.org."},{"key":"1092_CR172","unstructured":"Economist T. Globalisation, already slowing, is suffering a new assault. The Economist; 2023. https:\/\/www.economist.com\/briefing\/2023\/01\/12\/globalisation-already-slowing-is-suffering-a-new-assault. Accessed 22 Jan 2024."}],"container-title":["Globalization and Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12992-024-01092-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12992-024-01092-2\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12992-024-01092-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]],"date-time":"2025-02-01T17:02:31Z","timestamp":1738429351000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12992-024-01092-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]]},"references-count":172,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1092"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12992-024-01092-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["1744-8603"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1744-8603","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2 November 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 November 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 February 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not relevant for this manuscript. The research did not involve human participants, human data or human tissues.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Nor relevant for this manuscript, it does not include any individual person`s data.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare they have no competing interests. To our knowledge, there are no financial interest or benefit that has arisen from the direct applications of our research.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"3"}}