{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,18]],"date-time":"2026-07-18T09:30:16Z","timestamp":1784367016140,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,14]],"date-time":"2019-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1573689600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,14]],"date-time":"2019-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1573689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Parasites Vectors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Trachoma is the leading infectious cause of blindness globally. The WHO has recommended the SAFE (Surgery, Antibiotics, Facial cleanliness and Environmental improvements) strategy to eliminate trachoma as a public health problem. The F and E arms of the strategy will likely be important for sustained disease reductions, yet more evidence is needed detailing relationships between hygiene, sanitation and trachoma in areas with differing endemicity. This study addressed whether the regional differences in water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) variables were associated with the spatial distribution of trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF) among children aged 1 to 9\u00a0years in the Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Data from 152 multi-stage cluster random trachoma surveys were used to understand the degree of clustering of trachoma on two spatial scales (district and village) in Amhara using a geographical information system and the Getis-Ord G<jats:sub><jats:italic>i<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub>* (d) statistic for local clustering. Trained and certified graders examined children for the clinical signs of trachoma using the WHO simplified system. Socio-demographic, community, and geoclimatic factors thought to promote the clustering of the disease were included as covariates in a logistic regression model.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The mean district prevalence of TF among children aged 1 to 9\u00a0years in Amhara was 25.1% (standard deviation\u00a0=\u00a016.2%). The spatial distribution of TF was found to exhibit global spatial dependency with neighboring evaluation units at both district and village level. Specific clusters of high TF were identified at both the district and the village scale of analysis using weighted estimates of the prevalence of the disease. Increased prevalence of children without nasal and ocular discharge as well as increased prevalence of households with access to a water source within 30 minutes were statistically significantly negatively associated with clusters of high TF prevalence.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Water access and facial cleanliness were important factors in the clustering of trachoma within this hyperendemic region. Intensified promotion of structural and behavioral interventions to increase WASH coverage may be necessary to eliminate trachoma as a public health problem in Amhara and perhaps other hyper-endemic settings.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3790-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,14]],"date-time":"2019-11-14T16:02:49Z","timestamp":1573747369000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Associations between Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) and trachoma clustering at aggregate spatial scales, Amhara, Ethiopia"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Forest M.","family":"Altherr","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew W.","family":"Nute","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mulat","family":"Zerihun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eshetu","family":"Sata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aisha E. 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Consideration was given to the low literacy rate in the study region, and it was determined that a verbal informed consent should be obtained from study participants prior to data collection. Following the guidelines outlined by the Declaration of Helsinki, informed consent for individuals and parents of children participating in the study were recorded.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"540"}}