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The aims of this study were to estimate tick infestation patterns on migratory birds and the prevalence of different\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      species and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in ticks removed from birds in south-eastern Sweden.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Ticks were collected from resident and migratory birds captured at the Ottenby Bird Observatory, \u00d6land, Sweden, from March to November 2009. Ticks were molecularly identified to species, and morphologically to developmental stage, and the presence of\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      bacteria and TBEV was determined by quantitative real-time PCR.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 1339 ticks in the genera\n                      <jats:italic>Haemaphysalis, Hyalomma<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>Ixodes<\/jats:italic>\n                      was recorded of which\n                      <jats:italic>I. ricinus<\/jats:italic>\n                      was the most abundant species. Important tick hosts were the European robin (\n                      <jats:italic>Erithacus rubecula<\/jats:italic>\n                      ), Blackbird (\n                      <jats:italic>Turdus merula<\/jats:italic>\n                      ), Tree pipit (\n                      <jats:italic>Anthus trivialis<\/jats:italic>\n                      ), Eurasian wren (\n                      <jats:italic>Troglodytes troglodytes<\/jats:italic>\n                      )\n                      <jats:italic>,<\/jats:italic>\n                      Common redstart (\n                      <jats:italic>Phoenicurus phoenicurus<\/jats:italic>\n                      )\n                      <jats:italic>,<\/jats:italic>\n                      Willow warbler (\n                      <jats:italic>Phylloscopus trochilus<\/jats:italic>\n                      ), and Common whitethroat (\n                      <jats:italic>Sylvia communis<\/jats:italic>\n                      ).\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      bacteria were detected in 25% (285\/1,124) of the detached ticks available for analysis. Seven\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      species (\n                      <jats:italic>B. afzelii<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>B. burgdorferi<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>s.s.<\/jats:italic>\n                      ),\n                      <jats:italic>B. garinii<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>B. lusitaniae<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>B. turdi, B. valaisiana<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>B. miyamotoi<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) were identified.\n                      <jats:italic>B. turdi<\/jats:italic>\n                      was recorded for the first time in ticks in Sweden. The number of\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      cells per tick ranged from 2.0 \u00d7 10\n                      <jats:sup>0<\/jats:sup>\n                      to 7.0 \u00d7 10\n                      <jats:sup>5<\/jats:sup>\n                      .\n                      <jats:italic>B. miyamotoi<\/jats:italic>\n                      -containing ticks contained a significantly higher median number of\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      cells than\n                      <jats:italic>B. burgdorferi<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>s.l.<\/jats:italic>\n                      )-containing ticks.\n                      <jats:italic>B. garinii<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>B. miyamotoi<\/jats:italic>\n                      were the most prevalent\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      species in tick larvae. Larvae of\n                      <jats:italic>I. ricinus<\/jats:italic>\n                      with\n                      <jats:italic>B. garinii<\/jats:italic>\n                      were removed from seven bird species, particularly\n                      <jats:italic>S. communis<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>A. trivialis<\/jats:italic>\n                      , which may suggest that the larvae had contracted the\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      bacteria from or via these birds. Also, a high percentage of tick larvae containing\n                      <jats:italic>B. miyamotoi<\/jats:italic>\n                      was removed from\n                      <jats:italic>E. rubecula.<\/jats:italic>\n                      All ticks were negative for TBEV.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The results corroborate the view that the contributions of birds to human disease are substantial, particularly as blood hosts for ticks and for their short-, medium-, and long-distance dispersal. Moreover, several ground-foraging bird species appear to be important for the maintenance and dispersal of\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      species. The absence of TBEV in the ticks conforms to other similar studies.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04493-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,3]],"date-time":"2020-12-03T05:03:49Z","timestamp":1606971829000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":90,"title":["Migratory birds as disseminators of ticks and the tick-borne pathogens Borrelia bacteria and tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus: a seasonal study at Ottenby Bird Observatory in South-eastern Sweden"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Peter","family":"Wilhelmsson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas G. 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