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Monitoring changes in the prevalence of different <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic> species in ticks may be an important indicator of risk assessment and of differences in pathogenicity in humans. The objective of our study was to assess the prevalence, co-infection and distribution of <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Babesia<\/jats:italic> species in ticks removed from humans in a large sample collected during a study period of 4 years.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The ticks were collected throughout Poland from March to November over 4-year period from 2016 to 2019. All ticks (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20091953) were morphologically identified in terms of species and developmental stage. Molecular screening for <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Babesia<\/jats:italic> by amplification of the flagellin gene (<jats:italic>flaB<\/jats:italic>) or<jats:italic> 18S<\/jats:italic> rRNA marker was performed. Pathogen identity was confirmed by Sanger sequencing or PCR\u2013restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The ticks removed from humans in Poland during this study belonged to two species: <jats:italic>Ixodes ricinus<\/jats:italic> (97%) and <jats:italic>Dermacentor reticulatus<\/jats:italic> (3%). High <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic> prevalence (25.3%), including <jats:italic>B. miyamotoi<\/jats:italic> (8.4%), was confirmed in <jats:italic>Ixodes ricinus<\/jats:italic> ticks removed from humans, as was the change in frequency of occurrence of <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic> species during the 4-year study. Despite <jats:italic>Babesia<\/jats:italic> prevalence being relatively low (1.3%), the majority of tested isolates are considered to be pathogenic to humans. <jats:italic>Babesia<\/jats:italic> infection was observed more frequently among <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>-positive ticks (2.7%) than among ticks uninfected with <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic> (0.8%). The most frequent dual co-infections were between <jats:italic>Borrelia afzelii<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Babesia microti.<\/jats:italic> The presence of <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic> was also confirmed in <jats:italic>D. reticulatus<\/jats:italic> (12.7%); however the role of these ticks in spirochete transmission to susceptible hosts is still unclear.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Although the overall risk of developing LB after a tick bite is low in Europe, knowledge of the prevalence and distribution of <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Babesia<\/jats:italic> species in ticks might be an important indicator of the risk of both these tick-borne diseases.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Graphical abstract<\/jats:title>\n                \n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04849-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,1]],"date-time":"2021-07-01T20:03:07Z","timestamp":1625169787000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Long-term study of Borrelia and Babesia prevalence and co-infection in Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor recticulatus ticks removed from humans in Poland, 2016\u20132019"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Pawe\u0142czyk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Bednarska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adrianna","family":"Hamera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emilia","family":"Religa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Milena","family":"Poryszewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ewa J.","family":"Mierzejewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Renata","family":"Welc-Fal\u0119ciak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"4849_CR1","unstructured":"Lindgren E, Jaenson TGT. 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AKBE\/73\/2021). Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study in accordance with the Polish regulations. All experimental protocols were approved by Diagnostic Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases and Zoonotic Infections AmerLab Ltd, registered as medical entity in the National Chamber of Laboratory Diagnosticians (Poland).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"348"}}