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The infection prevalence and characteristics of\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      in\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      sensu stricto (s.s.), another primary vector species of malaria in Kenya, were investigated.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Field-collected females were confirmed to be\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      -positive after oviposition. Egg counts of\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      -infected and non-infected individuals were used to infer the effects of\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      on fecundity. The time to pupation, adult sex ratio and survival were used to determine if\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection has similar characteristics in the host mosquitoes\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>An. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      . The intensity of\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection in tissues of the midgut and gonads, and in carcasses, was determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. To investigate horizontal transmission, virgin males and females that were either\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      -infected or non-infected were placed in standard cages for 48\u00a0h and allowed to mate; transmission was confirmed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction targeting\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      genes.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      was found to naturally occur at a low prevalence in\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. collected in western Kenya.\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      shortened the development time from larva to pupa, but other fitness parameters such as fecundity, sex ratio, and adult survival did not differ between\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      -infected and non-infected hosts.\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      intensities were high in the male gonadal tissues. Transmission experiments indicated that\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      undergoes both maternal and horizontal transmission in\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The findings that\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      naturally infects, undergoes maternal and horizontal transmission, and is avirulent in\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. indicate that many of the characteristics of its infection in\n                      <jats:italic>An. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      hold true for the former. The results of the present study indicate that\n                      <jats:italic>Microsporidia MB<\/jats:italic>\n                      could be developed as a tool for the transmission-blocking of malaria across different\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      species.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-023-05933-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]],"date-time":"2023-09-25T07:02:44Z","timestamp":1695625364000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Microsporidia MB in the primary malaria vector Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto is avirulent and undergoes maternal and horizontal transmission"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Godfrey","family":"Nattoh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brenda","family":"Onyango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edward Edmond","family":"Makhulu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diana","family":"Omoke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lilian Mbaisi","family":"Ang\u2019ang\u2019o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luna","family":"Kamau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maxwell Machani","family":"Gesuge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Ochomo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeremy Keith","family":"Herren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"5933_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15535","volume":"526","author":"S Bhatt","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bhatt S, Weiss DJ, Cameron E, Bisanzio D, Mappin B, Dalrymple U, et al. 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The community leaders and village participants enrolled in the sample collection were provided with a detailed explanation of the study objectives, activities, procedures, benefits and risks before its commencement. Through the participation of the community leaders we were able to obtain informed consent from the owners of the households where samples were collected. Participation was on a voluntary basis, and participants were free to withdraw from the study whenever they wished.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"All authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"335"}}