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This study assessed the biting patterns of potentially infectious malaria vectors at various hours, locations, and associated human behaviors in different ecological settings in western Kenya.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Hourly indoor and outdoor catches of human-biting mosquitoes were sampled from 19:00 to 07:00 for four consecutive nights in four houses per village. The human behavior study was conducted via questionnaire surveys and observations. Species within the\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      complex and\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      group were distinguished by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the presence of\n                      <jats:italic>Plasmodium falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      circumsporozoite proteins (CSP) determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Altogether, 2037 adult female anophelines were collected comprising the\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      group (76.7%),\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      sensu lato (22.8%), and\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles coustani<\/jats:italic>\n                      (0.5%). PCR results revealed that\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles arabiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      constituted 80.5% and 79% of the\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.l. samples analyzed from the lowland sites (Ahero and Kisian, respectively).\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      sensu stricto (hereafter\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) (98.1%) was the dominant species in the highland site (Kimaeti). All the\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.l. analyzed belonged to\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. (hereafter\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      ). Indoor biting densities of\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.l. and\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      exceeded the outdoor biting densities in all sites. The peak biting occurred in early morning between 04:30 and 06:30 in the lowlands for\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      both indoors and outdoors. In the highlands, the peak biting of\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      occurred between 01:00 and 02:00 indoors. Over 50% of the study population stayed outdoors from 18:00 to 22:00 and woke up at 05:00, coinciding with the times when the highest numbers of vectors were collected. The sporozoite rate was higher in vectors collected outdoors, with\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      being the main malaria vector in the lowlands and\n                      <jats:italic>An. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                      in the highlands.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This study shows heterogeneity of anopheline distribution, high outdoor malaria transmission, and early morning peak biting activity of\n                      <jats:italic>An. funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      when humans are not protected by  bednets  in the lowland sites. Additional vector control efforts targeting the behaviors of these vectors, such as the use of non-pyrethroids for indoor residual spraying and spatial repellents outdoors, are needed.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-023-05944-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,20]],"date-time":"2023-10-20T21:02:35Z","timestamp":1697835755000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Differences in malaria vector biting behavior and changing vulnerability to malaria transmission in contrasting ecosystems of western Kenya"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Irene","family":"Nzioki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maxwell G.","family":"Machani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shirley A.","family":"Onyango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin K.","family":"Kabui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew K.","family":"Githeko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Ochomo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guiyun","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yaw A.","family":"Afrane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"5944_CR1","unstructured":"WHO, 2020. 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The area chief, sub-chief, village elders, and relevant county authorities were sensitized on the study activities planned and permission obtained. Household heads and participants provided written consent to be interviewed and their houses used for mosquito collections. Informed consent was obtained from the volunteers who were trained to collect landing mosquitoes to minimize the risk of malaria transmission. All experiments and methods were carried out in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations of SERU.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"The authors have declared that they have no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for Publication"}}],"article-number":"376"}}