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Many patients continue to experiences relapses of VL despite virological control, but with immunological failure. These patients remain chronically symptomatic with hypersplenism, for example with anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia, and are at risk of severe co-infection due to low CD4+ count. Therefore, in this study, splenectomized patients with VL and HIV infection were investigated to understand why the CD4+ count fails to recover in these patients, evaluating the importance of spleen mass for hypersplenism and immunological failure.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>From a retrospective open cohort of 13 patients who had previously undergone splenectomy as salvage therapy for relapsing VL, 11 patients with HIV infection were investigated. This study compared the patients\u2019 complete blood cell count (CBC) and CD4+ and CD8+ cell counts before and after splenectomy with respect to spleen weight.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      CBC was substantially improved after splenectomy, indicating hypersplenism. However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to show that spleen mass is strongly and negatively correlated with CD4+ cell count (\n                      <jats:italic>\u03c1<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009\u22120.71,\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.015).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This finding was unexpected, as the spleen is the most extensive lymphoid tissue and T-lymphocyte source. After reviewing the literature and reasoning, we hypothesized that the immunological failure was secondary to CD4+ loss initially by apoptosis in the spleen induced by productive HIV infection and, subsequently, by pyroptosis sustained by parasitic infection in spleen macrophages.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06151-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,15]],"date-time":"2024-03-15T08:02:26Z","timestamp":1710489746000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The spleen is the graveyard of CD4+ cells in patients with immunological failure of visceral leishmaniasis and AIDS"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Luis Gustavo Cavalcante","family":"Reinaldo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raimundo Jos\u00e9 Cunha","family":"Ara\u00fajo J\u00fanior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thiago Melo","family":"Diniz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rafael de Deus","family":"Moura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ant\u00f4nio Jos\u00e9","family":"Meneses Filho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Caio Victor Ver\u00e7osa de Macedo","family":"Furtado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Washington Luis Conrado","family":"dos Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dorcas Lamounier","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kelsen Dantas","family":"Eul\u00e1lio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gabriel R.","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carlos Henrique Nery","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"6151_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31204-2","volume":"392","author":"S Burza","year":"2018","unstructured":"Burza S, Croft SL, Boelaert M. 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