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Both techniques require improvements. This study aimed to optimize the Esperanza Window Trap (EWT) for black fly collection. We tested alternative carbon dioxide (CO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      ) mimics to attract black flies to the traps. Additionally, we evaluated new quantitative PCR (qPCR) methods that target mitochondrial DNA markers and have been proposed to enhance the sensitivity and specificity for detecting\n                      <jats:italic>Onchocerca volvulus<\/jats:italic>\n                      infections in blackflies.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Traps baited with low, medium and high release rates of either 2-butanone or cyclopentanone as CO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      mimics were field tested against traps baited with organically generated CO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      in four ecological zones in Nigeria: Guinea savannah, derived savannah, rainforest and montane forest. The performance of EWTs baited with CO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      or in combination with 2-butanone (low release) were subsequently evaluated against the human landing collection (HLC). Trap scaling was also pilot tested by comparing two EWTs to a single HLC team. Collected black flies were used to test detection of\n                      <jats:italic>O. volvulus<\/jats:italic>\n                      in black flies using Ov ND5 real-time PCR (qPCR) compared to the conventional pool screening O-150 PCR.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      EWTs baited with 2-butanone caught similar numbers of black flies (\n                      <jats:italic>Simulium damnosum<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.l.) to those baited with CO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      , while cyclopentanone collected significantly fewer flies in all locations. The low release of 2-butanone was the most effective overall, although HLCs collected higher numbers of black flies than EWT baited with CO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      either singly or in combination with low-release 2-butanone. The combination of two EWTs baited with CO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      and deployed 100\u00a0m apart from each other collected similar numbers of flies as one HLC. More black fly pools were positive for\n                      <jats:italic>O. volvulus<\/jats:italic>\n                      by Ov ND5 qPCR compared with O-150 PCR in derived savannah (31.15 vs. 15.57%), montane forest (11.54 vs. 0%) and rainforest (23.08 vs. 2.56%), with only one positive pool in Guinea savannah detected by both methods.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The 2-butanone has potential to be used in xenomonitoring as a standardized replacement for organically generated CO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      . Ov ND5 qPCR detected more positive pools than O-150 PCR. The positive pools found in foci hitherto considered to have interrupted\/eliminated onchocerciasis highlight the need for more sensitive and specific methods that support programmatic assessments to identify and combat recrudescence.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06554-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]],"date-time":"2024-11-18T08:29:26Z","timestamp":1731918566000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Improving onchocerciasis elimination surveillance: trials of odour baited Esperanza Window Traps to collect black fly vectors and real-time qPCR detection of Onchocerca volvulus in black fly pools"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Monsuru A.","family":"Adeleke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kenneth N.","family":"Opara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hayward B.","family":"Mafuyai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bertram Ekejiuba Bright","family":"Nwoke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olabanji A.","family":"Surakat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sunday B.","family":"Akinde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Murphy","family":"Nwoke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Friday M.","family":"Chikezie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9214-6095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Clement A.","family":"Yaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ugagu","family":"Mmaduabuchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Igbe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emeka","family":"Makata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatai","family":"Oyediran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chukwuma","family":"Anyaike","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Tongjura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Frances","family":"Hawkes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zahra O.","family":"Iwalewa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"6554_CR1","volume-title":"Guidelines for stopping mass drug administration and verifying elimination of human onchocerciasis: criteria and procedures","author":"WHO","year":"2016","unstructured":"WHO. 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African Health. 2023;19\u201321. https:\/\/africa-health.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/19-Onchocerciasis.pdf."}],"container-title":["Parasites &amp; Vectors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-024-06554-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s13071-024-06554-5\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-024-06554-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]],"date-time":"2024-11-18T09:05:11Z","timestamp":1731920711000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s13071-024-06554-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["6554"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-024-06554-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["1756-3305"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1756-3305","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 May 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 October 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 November 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The study protocol was approved by the National Health Research Ethical Committee of the Federal Ministry of Health, Nigeria (NHREC\/01\/01\/2007\u201313\/03\/2023). The Neglected Tropical Diseases Coordinators and the community leaders in the four selected locations were appropriately mobilized for the study.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Written informed consent was also obtained from the community leaders and the locally appointed vector collectors after the objectives, benefits and risks had been duly explained.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"471"}}