{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T12:45:50Z","timestamp":1770813950793,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768176000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770595200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":28,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["INV-002138"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-002138"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000011","name":"Howard Hughes Medical Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OPP1099295"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OPP1099295"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000011","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Parasites Vectors"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Despite\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. being a highly competent and widespread malaria vector in Africa, its population structure remains largely understudied in many countries, including Tanzania. Herein, we examine the genetic diversity, geographic isolation, and gene flow of\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      populations across ten administrative regions in mainland Tanzania.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We employed 12 previously used microsatellite DNA markers to describe genetic diversity, isolation by distance, and gene flow patterns among ten\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. populations (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009654) and one\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0parensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      population (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200928), used as an outgroup, sampled across ten regions in mainland Tanzania.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Overall, allelic richness (\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      a) and genetic diversity (\n                      <jats:italic>H<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sub>S<\/jats:sub>\n                      ) did not differ significantly among populations. Although some loci and populations showed significant departures from Hardy\u2013Weinberg equilibrium, the patterns were not indicative of substructuring within locations. Pairwise genetic divergence (\n                      <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sub>ST<\/jats:sub>\n                      ) values indicated clear separation between\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0parensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0and\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s., with values exceeding 0.2, consistent with species-level differentiation. Among\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s.\u00a0populations, the highest divergence was observed between southeastern coastal populations (Mtwara, Ruvuma, Lindi) and inland populations, with\n                      <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sub>ST<\/jats:sub>\n                      values up to 0.288. There was no evidence of isolation by distance. Instead, patterns of genetic divergence suggested connectivity across the Rift Valley and heterogeneity among southeastern populations. Neighbor-joining analysis and Bayesian genotype clustering identified three distinct population groups: (i)\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0parensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0(Dodoma), (ii) a genetically distinct\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s.\u00a0population from Mtwara, and (iii) a more homogeneous cluster comprising the remaining\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s.\u00a0populations. Notably, the Mtwara population appeared highly differentiated, with divergence approaching that between\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s.\u00a0and\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0parensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      , supporting its distinctiveness but not undermining the role of\u00a0\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0parensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0as an outgroup.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Except for the Mtwara population, whose status will need to be clarified through whole-genome sequencing, moderate genetic divergence was found among\n                      <jats:italic>An.\u00a0funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                      s.s. populations across Tanzania, despite geographical separation and the Rift Valley. The observed genetic structure suggests that anthropogenic gene flow may play a key role in shaping population divergence. Future studies should aim to delineate the effects of local adaptation from recent gene flow to further explore these dynamics\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-025-07080-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T05:24:26Z","timestamp":1768195466000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Microsatellite analysis of genetic differentiation among populations of the malaria vector Anopheles funestus across mainland Tanzania reveals contrasted patterns of geographic isolation and gene flow"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Salum Abdallah","family":"Mapua","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Badara","family":"Samb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ismail Hassan","family":"Nambunga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Prisca Asiimwe","family":"Kweyamba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gustav","family":"Mkandawile","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hamis","family":"Bwanaly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emmanuel Wilson","family":"Kaindoa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joel Ouma","family":"Odero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"John Paliga","family":"Masalu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Najat Feruz","family":"Kahamba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emmanuel Elirehema","family":"Hape","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Galizi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicodem James","family":"Govella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fredros Oketch","family":"Okumu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Frederic","family":"Tripet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"7080_CR1","unstructured":"WHO, World malaria report 2023; 2023. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789240086173. Accessed 13 Dec 2023."},{"key":"7080_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-3171-3","author":"EO Ogola","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ogola EO, Fillinger U, Ondiba IM,  Villinger J, Masiga DK, Torto B, et\u00a0al. Insights into malaria transmission among Anopheles funestus mosquitoes, Kenya. Parasit Vectors. 2018. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-018-3171-3.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7080_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep43779","author":"A Burke","year":"2017","unstructured":"Burke A, Dandalo L, Munhenga G, Dahan-Moss Y, Mbokazi F, Ngxongo S, et\u00a0al. A new malaria vector mosquito in South Africa. Sci Rep. 2017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/srep43779.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"7080_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/jamca.2003.19.130","author":"L Kamau","year":"2003","unstructured":"Kamau L, Koekemoer LL, Coetzee M, Hunt RH. Anopheles parensis: the main member of the Anopheles funestus species group found resting inside human dwellings in Mwea area of central Kenya toward the end of the rainy season. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 2003. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/jamca.2003.19.130.","journal-title":"J Am Mosq Control Assoc"},{"key":"7080_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-2889-5","author":"A Burke","year":"2019","unstructured":"Burke A, Dahan-Moss Y, Duncan F, Qwabe B, Coetzee M, Koekemoer L, et\u00a0al. Anopheles parensis contributes to residual malaria transmission in South Africa. Malar J. 2019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-019-2889-5.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"7080_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-5-230","author":"H Kawada","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kawada H, Dida GO, Sonye G, Njenga SM, Mwandawiro C, Minakawa N. Reconsideration of Anopheles rivulorum as a vector of Plasmodium falciparum in western Kenya: some evidence from biting time, blood preference, sporozoite positive rate, and pyrethroid resistance. Parasit Vectors. 2012. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1756-3305-5-230.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7080_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2007.04.009","author":"EA Temu","year":"2007","unstructured":"Temu EA, Minjas JN, Tuno N, Kawada H, Takagi M. Identification of four members of the Anopheles funestus (diptera: culicidae) group and their role in Plasmodium falciparum transmission in Bagamoyo coastal Tanzania. Acta Trop. 2007. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actatropica.2007.04.009.","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"7080_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.200","author":"A Cohuet","year":"2003","unstructured":"Cohuet A, Simard F, Toto JC, Kengne P, Coetzee M, Fontenille D. Species identification within the Anopheles funestus group of malaria vectors in Cameroon and evidence for a new species. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.200.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7080_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-11333-2","author":"F Kinya","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kinya F, Mutero CM, Sang R, Owino EA, Rotich G, Ogola EO, et\u00a0al. Outdoor malaria vector species profile in dryland ecosystems of Kenya. Sci Rep. 2022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-022-11333-2.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"7080_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-023-06019-1","author":"BJ Msugupakulya","year":"2023","unstructured":"Msugupakulya BJ, Urio NH, Jumanne M, Ngowo HS, Selvaraj P, Okumu FO, et\u00a0al. Changes in contributions of different Anopheles vector species to malaria transmission in east and southern Africa from 2000 to 2022. Parasit Vectors. 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-023-06019-1.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7080_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2022.e00264","author":"SA Mapua","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mapua SA, Hape EE, Kihonda J, Bwanary H, Kifungo K, Kilalangongono M, et\u00a0al. Persistently high proportions of Plasmodium-infected Anopheles funestus mosquitoes in two villages in the Kilombero valley, south-eastern Tanzania. Parasite Epidemiol Control. 2021. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.parepi.2022.e00264.","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol Control"},{"key":"7080_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0177807","author":"EW Kaindoa","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kaindoa EW, Matowo NS, Ngowo HS, Mkandawile G, Mmbando A, Finda M, et\u00a0al. Interventions that effectively target Anopheles funestus mosquitoes could significantly improve control of persistent malaria transmission in south-eastern Tanzania. PLoS ONE. 2017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0177807.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"7080_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-03483-3","author":"PG Pinda","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pinda PG, Eichenberger C, Ngowo HS, Msaky DS, Abbasi S, Kihonda J, et\u00a0al. Comparative assessment of insecticide resistance phenotypes in two major malaria vectors, Anopheles funestus and Anopheles arabiensis in south-eastern Tanzania. Malar J. 2020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-020-03483-3.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"7080_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-3-117","author":"ME Sinka","year":"2010","unstructured":"Sinka ME, Bangs MJ, Manguin S, Coetzee M, Mbogo CM, Hemingway J, et\u00a0al. The dominant Anopheles vectors of human malaria in Africa, Europe and the Middle East: occurrence data, distribution maps and bionomic pr\u00e9cis. Parasit Vectors. 2010. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1756-3305-3-117.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7080_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.17542","author":"J Odero","year":"2024","unstructured":"Odero J, Dennis TPW, Polo B, Nwezeobi J, Bodd\u00e9 M, Nagi SC, et\u00a0al. Discovery of knock-down resistance in the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus reveals the legacy of persistent DDT pollution. bioRxiv. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/mec.17542.","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"7080_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-28419-0","author":"FA Yao","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yao FA, Millogo AA, Epopa PS, North A, Noulin F, Dao K, et\u00a0al. Mark-release-recapture experiment in Burkina Faso demonstrates reduced fitness and dispersal of genetically-modified sterile malaria mosquitoes. Nat Commun. 2022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-022-28419-0.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"7080_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2011.08.004","author":"JR Loaiza","year":"2012","unstructured":"Loaiza JR, Bermingham E, Sanjur OI, Scott ME, Bickersmith SA, Conn JE. Review of genetic diversity in malaria vectors (Culicidae: Anophelinae). Infect Genet Evol. 2012. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.meegid.2011.08.004.","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol"},{"key":"7080_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2006.00889.x","author":"KA Selkoe","year":"2006","unstructured":"Selkoe KA, Toonen RJ. Microsatellites for ecologists: a practical guide to using and evaluating microsatellite markers. Ecol Lett. 2006. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2006.00889.x.","journal-title":"Ecol Lett"},{"key":"7080_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9525(00)02139-9","author":"H Ellegren","year":"2000","unstructured":"Ellegren H. Microsatellite mutations in the germline: implications for evolutionary inference. Trends Genet. 2000. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0168-9525(00)02139-9.","journal-title":"Trends Genet"},{"key":"7080_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msp025","author":"JX Sun","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sun JX, Mullikin JC, Patterson N, Reich DE. Microsatellites are molecular clocks that support accurate inferences about history. Mol Biol Evol. 2009. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/molbev\/msp025.","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol"},{"key":"7080_CR21","unstructured":"World Bank Group, Climate Change Knowledge Portal. https:\/\/climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org\/country\/tanzania\/climate-data-historical. Accessed 28 Dec 2023."},{"key":"7080_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-11-188","author":"YA Derua","year":"2012","unstructured":"Derua YA, Alifrangis M, Hosea KM, Meyrowitsch DW, Magesa SW, Pedersen EM, et\u00a0al. Change in composition of the Anopheles gambiae complex and its possible implications for the transmission of malaria and lymphatic filariasis in north-eastern Tanzania. Malar J. 2012. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1475-2875-11-188.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"7080_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1616-8","author":"JK Swai","year":"2016","unstructured":"Swai JK, Finda  MF, Madumla EP, Lingamba GF, Moshi IR, Rafiq MY, et\u00a0al. Studies on mosquito biting risk among migratory rice farmers in rural south-eastern Tanzania and development of a portable mosquito-proof hut. Malar J. 2016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-016-1616-8.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"7080_CR24","unstructured":"National Bureau of Statistics. Tanzania demographic and health survey and malaria indicator survey 2022 key indicators."},{"key":"7080_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1998.59.595","author":"LEG Mboera","year":"1998","unstructured":"Mboera LEG, Kihonda J, Braks MAH, Knols BGJ. Short report: influence of centers for disease control light trap position, relative to a human-baited bed net, on catches of Anopheles gambiae and Culex quinquefasciatus in Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.1998.59.595.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7080_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-4-124","author":"MF Maia","year":"2011","unstructured":"Maia MF, Robinson A, John A, Mgando J, Simfukwe E, Moore SJ. Comparison of the CDC backpack aspirator and the Prokopack aspirator for sampling indoor- and outdoor-resting mosquitoes in southern Tanzania. Parasit Vectors. 2011. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1756-3305-4-124.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7080_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-6-154","author":"MJ Vanek","year":"2006","unstructured":"Vanek MJ, Shoo B, Mtasiwa D, Kiama M, Lindsay SW, Fillinger U, et\u00a0al. Community-based surveillance of malaria vector larval habitats: a baseline study in urban Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. BMC Public Health. 2006. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1471-2458-6-154.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"7080_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0220563","author":"EPA Batista","year":"2019","unstructured":"Batista EPA, Mapua SA, Ngowo H, Matowo NS, Melo EF, Paix\u00e3o KS, et\u00a0al. Videographic analysis of flight behaviours of host-seeking Anopheles arabiensis towards BG-malaria trap. PLoS ONE. 2019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0220563.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"7080_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1510-9","author":"MLO Sangba","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sangba MLO, Deketramete T, Wango SP, Kazanji M, Akogbeto M, Ndiath MO. Insecticide resistance status of the Anopheles funestus population in Central African Republic: a challenge in the war. Parasit Vectors. 2016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-016-1510-9.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7080_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2002.66.804","author":"LL Koekemoer","year":"2002","unstructured":"Koekemoer LL, Kamau L, Hunt RH, Coetzee M. A cocktail polymerase chain reaction assay to identify members of the Anopheles funestus (Diptera: Culicidae) group. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.2002.66.804.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7080_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06348-9","author":"SA Mapua","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mapua SA, Nambunga IH, Mkandawile G, Bwanaly H, Kaindoa EW, Odero JO, et\u00a0al. Entomological survey of sibling species in the Anopheles funestus group in Tanzania confirms the role of Anopheles parensis as a secondary malaria vector. Parasit Vectors. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-024-06348-9.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7080_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jhered\/esh011","author":"I Sharakhov","year":"2004","unstructured":"Sharakhov I. A microsatellite map of the African human malaria vector Anopheles funestus. J Hered. 2004. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jhered\/esh011.","journal-title":"J Hered"},{"key":"7080_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1006539","author":"KG Barnes","year":"2017","unstructured":"Barnes KG, Weedall GD, Ndula M, Irving H,  Mzihalowa T, Hemingway J, et\u00a0al. Genomic footprints of selective sweeps from metabolic resistance to pyrethroids in African malaria vectors are driven by scale up of insecticide-based vector control. PLoS Genet. 2017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgen.1006539.","journal-title":"PLoS Genet"},{"key":"7080_CR34","unstructured":"Applied Biosystems, GeneMapper\u00ae Software Version 5.0, 2010, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Foster: 5.0. https:\/\/www.thermofisher.com\/order\/catalog\/product\/4370784. Accessed 25 June 2024."},{"key":"7080_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111627","author":"J Goudet","year":"1995","unstructured":"Goudet J. FSTAT (Version 1.2): a computer program to calculate F-statistics. J Hered. 1995. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111627.","journal-title":"J Hered"},{"key":"7080_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111573","author":"M Raymond","year":"1995","unstructured":"Raymond M, Rousset F. GENEPOP (Version 1.2): Population genetics software for exact tests and ecumenicism. J Hered. 1995. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111573.","journal-title":"J Hered"},{"key":"7080_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2010.02847.x","author":"L Excoffier","year":"2010","unstructured":"Excoffier L, Lischer HEL. Arlequin suite ver 3.5: a new series of programs to perform population genetics analyses under Linux and Windows. Mol Ecol Resour. 2010. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2010.02847.x.","journal-title":"Mol Ecol Resour"},{"key":"7080_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msr121","author":"K Tamura","year":"2011","unstructured":"Tamura K, Peterson D, Peterson N, Stecher G, Nei M, Kumar S. MEGA5: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood, evolutionary distance, and maximum parsimony methods. Mol Biol Evol. 2011. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/molbev\/msr121.","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol"},{"key":"7080_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/155.2.945","author":"JK Pritchard","year":"2000","unstructured":"Pritchard JK, Stephens M, Donnelly P. Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data. Genetics. 2000. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/genetics\/155.2.945.","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"7080_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-5-283","author":"KS Choi","year":"2012","unstructured":"Choi KS, Koekemoer LL, Coetzee M. Population genetic structure of the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus s.s. and allied species in southern Africa. Parasit Vectors. 2012. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1756-3305-5-283.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7080_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.106.059667","author":"AP Michel","year":"2006","unstructured":"Michel AP, Grushko O, Guelbeogo WM, Lobo NF, Sagnon N, Costantini C, et\u00a0al. Divergence with gene flow in Anopheles funestus from the Sudan Savanna of Burkina Faso, West Africa. Genetics. 2006. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1534\/genetics.106.059667.","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"7080_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-120811-153628","author":"M Coetzee","year":"2013","unstructured":"Coetzee M, Koekemoer LL. Molecular systematics and insecticide resistance in the major African malaria vector Anopheles funestus. Annu Rev Entomol. 2013. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-ento-120811-153628.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Entomol"},{"key":"7080_CR43","unstructured":"John EM. A forest monitoring system for Tanzania: mapping change and extent, Aberystwyth University; 2023."},{"key":"7080_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-03295-5","author":"IH Nambunga","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nambunga IH, Ngowo HS, Mapua SA, Hape EE, Msugupakulya BJ, Msaky DS, et\u00a0al. Aquatic habitats of the malaria vector Anopheles funestus in rural south-eastern Tanzania. Malar J. 2020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-020-03295-5.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"7080_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06119-6","author":"NF Kahamba","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kahamba NF, Okumu FO, Jumanne M, Kifungo K, Odero JO, Baldini F, et\u00a0al. Geospatial modelling of dry season habitats of the malaria vector, Anopheles funestus, in south-eastern Tanzania. Parasit Vectors. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-024-06119-6.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7080_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jhered\/90.6.613","author":"T Lehmann","year":"1999","unstructured":"Lehmann T, Hawley WA, Grebert H, Danga M, Atieli F, Collins FH. The Rift Valley complex as a barrier to gene flow for Anopheles gambiae in Kenya. J Hered. 1999. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jhered\/90.6.613.","journal-title":"J Hered"},{"key":"7080_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.303","author":"OP Braginets","year":"2003","unstructured":"Braginets OP, Minakawa N, Mbogo CM, Yan G. Population genetic structure of the African malaria mosquito Anopheles funestus in Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.303.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7080_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240743","author":"MM Sandeu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sandeu MM, Mulamba C, Weedall GD, Wondji CS. A differential expression of pyrethroid resistance genes in the malaria vector Anopheles funestus across Uganda is associated with patterns of gene flow. PLoS ONE. 2020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0240743.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"7080_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(05)62009-X","author":"AJ Tatem","year":"2006","unstructured":"Tatem AJ, Rogers DJ, Hay SI. Global transport networks and infectious disease spread. Adv in Parasitol. 2006. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0065-308X(05)62009-X.","journal-title":"Adv in Parasitol"},{"key":"7080_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.01.21.634154","author":"JO Odero","year":"2025","unstructured":"Odero JO, Nambunga IH, Masalu JP, Mkandawile G, Bwanary H, Hape EE, et\u00a0al. Distinct genetic populations and resistance backgrounds of the malaria vector Anopheles funestus in Tanzania. bioRxiv. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2025.01.21.634154.","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"7080_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0501847102","author":"FJ Ayala","year":"2005","unstructured":"Ayala FJ, Coluzzi M. Chromosome speciation: humans, Drosophila, and mosquitoes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.0501847102.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"7080_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1005141","author":"F Aboagye-Antwi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Aboagye-Antwi F, Alhafez N, Weedall GD, Brothwood J, Kandola S, Paton D, et\u00a0al. Experimental swap of Anopheles gambiae assortative mating preferences demonstrates key role of X-chromosome divergence island in incipient sympatric speciation. PLoS Genet. 2015. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgen.1005141.","journal-title":"PLoS Genet"},{"key":"7080_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.11646\/zootaxa.3619.3.2","author":"M Coetzee","year":"2013","unstructured":"Coetzee M, Hunt RH, Wilkerson R, Della Torre A, Coulibaly MB, Besansky NJ. Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles amharicus, new members of the Anopheles gambiae complex. Zootaxa. 2013. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.11646\/zootaxa.3619.3.2.","journal-title":"Zootaxa"},{"key":"7080_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6785-9-16","author":"C Costantini","year":"2009","unstructured":"Costantini C, Ayala D, Guelbeogo WM, Pombi M, Some CY, Bassole IH, et\u00a0al. Living at the edge: biogeographic patterns of habitat segregation conform to speciation by niche expansion in Anopheles gambiae. BMC Ecol. 2009. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1472-6785-9-16.","journal-title":"BMC Ecol"},{"key":"7080_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msq248","author":"D Ayala","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ayala D, Fontaine MC, Cohuet A, Fontenille D, Vitalis R, Simard F. Chromosomal inversions, natural selection and adaptation in the malaria vector Anopheles funestus. Mol Biol Evol. 2011. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/molbev\/msq248.","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol"},{"key":"7080_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0962-1083.2001.01301.x","author":"F Tripet","year":"2001","unstructured":"Tripet F, Tour\u00e9 YT, Taylor CE, Norris DE, Dolo G, Lanzaro GC. DNA analysis of transferred sperm reveals significant levels of gene flow between molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae. Mol Ecol. 2001. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1046\/j.0962-1083.2001.01301.x.","journal-title":"Mol Ecol"}],"container-title":["Parasites &amp; Vectors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07080-8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07080-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07080-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T13:06:32Z","timestamp":1770642392000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07080-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["7080"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07080-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["1756-3305"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1756-3305","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"6 March 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 September 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 January 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Ethical approvals for this project were obtained from Ifakara Health Institute\u2019s Institutional Review Board (Protocol ID: IHI\/IRB\/no.: 19-2017 and IHI\/IRB\/EXT\/no.: 33-2022) and the Medical Research Coordinating Committee (MRCC) at the National Institute for Medical Research, in Tanzania (Protocol ID: NIMR\/HQ\/R.8a\/Vol.IX\/2697 and NIMR\/HQ\/R.8a\/Vol.IX\/3494). Written consents were sought from all participants of this study, after they had understood the purpose and procedure of the discussions.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Permission to publish this study was obtained from National Institute for Medical Research, in Tanzania (BD.242\/437\/01C\/135).","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"76"}}