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Understanding the larval ecology of this mosquito during the dry season, which represents a potential population bottleneck due to limited larval habitats and harsher environmental conditions, is critical for informing targeted interventions.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We conducted systematic surveys in three climatically distinct Ethiopian cities\u2014Semera, Logiya and Jigjiga\u2014during the dry season of 2023. A total of 523 water-holding habitats were identified and characterized for the presence and productivity of\n                      <jats:italic>An. stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                      immature stages. Habitat characteristics, including container type, floating algal mass presence, cover status and water chemistry, were recorded. A Lefkovitch matrix model was used to project habitat-specific productivity.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Overall, 40.9% of the habitats surveyed were positive for\n                      <jats:italic>An. stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Larval positivity and productivity were significantly higher in Semera and Logiya, coinciding with warmer temperatures and lower elevations. Three habitat types, namely construction pits, residential cisterns and ground-level water tanks, accounted for 87% of positive habitats and 81% of all larvae. Complete stage structures observed in key habitats indicated ongoing oviposition and larval development throughout the dry season. The Lefkovitch model identified construction pits as the most productive habitat type across all three cities.\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                      larval presence and density were strongly associated with the presence of green filamentous algal aggregates (odds ratio [OR]\u20096.00, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.76\u201313.04). Secondary predictors were lack of cover (OR 0.98, 95% CI 0.96\u20130.98) and specific water chemistry parameters (OR 1.21, 95% CI 1.03\u20131.42).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Urban infrastructure and water storage practices during the dry season support discrete ecological niches that facilitate the persistence of\n                      <jats:italic>An. stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                      populations in eastern Ethiopia. These findings underscore the importance of targeted larval source management focused on key habitat types, particularly construction-related and domestic water storage containers, to reduce urban malaria transmission risk in the Horn of Africa.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-025-07100-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T16:08:07Z","timestamp":1763136487000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Habitat heterogeneity and green filamentous algae influence the larval ecology of Anopheles stephensi during the dry season in Eastern Ethiopia"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Araya","family":"Gebresilassie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esayas","family":"Aklilu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Solomon","family":"Yared","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elyas","family":"Abdulahi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kedir Adem","family":"Darasa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed Ali","family":"habib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Witka nore","family":"Witka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hamedu","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dagnew","family":"Hagezom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tamiru","family":"Kassa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dorian","family":"Jackson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gonzalo M.","family":"Vazquez-Prokopec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"7100_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2024.06.008","volume":"40","author":"R Taylor","year":"2024","unstructured":"Taylor R, Messenger LA, Abeku TA, Clarke SE, Yadav RS, Lines J. 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Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003."}],"container-title":["Parasites &amp; Vectors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07100-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07100-7\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07100-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,15]],"date-time":"2025-11-15T01:04:45Z","timestamp":1763168685000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07100-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["7100"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07100-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["1756-3305"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1756-3305","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"6 July 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 October 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The study protocol was approved by the IRB committee of Jigjiga University (JJU-RERC063\/2024) and Emory University IRB in the framework of non-human research. Each household owner provided verbal consent to our field team to enter their property and conduct mosquito collections.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"461"}}