{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T03:01:45Z","timestamp":1769828505034,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766966400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769731200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":32,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Wellcome"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Parasites Vectors"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Mosquito-borne diseases cause significant burdens in rural areas of Southeast Asia. The lack of data on vector bionomics hinders disease control and elimination. The objectives of this study were to assess the diversity and biting behaviours of mosquito species biting humans and their livestock in the forest hills of Karen state, Myanmar, and to assess the patterns of species co-occurrence and the effects of the environment on vector abundance.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Mosquitoes were captured over 24-h diel cycles in six villages in September 2019 using the human landing catch and cow-baited trap collection methods. Collected specimens were identified to the species level using dichotomous morphological keys. Environmental data were acquired through remote sensing. The analysis of biting times was performed with circular statistics. Species co-occurrence patterns and the effects of environmental variables on species abundance were assessed with a generalized linear latent variable model.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 36,607 mosquitoes were captured, and 96 species in 16 genera were identified. The most abundant genera were\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Culex<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Downsiomyia<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Multiple malaria, arboviruses and lymphatic filariasis vector species were detected, and their biting behaviours were reported. Generalized linear latent variable modelling revealed two clusters of species that were positively correlated with one another. The first cluster included many\n                      <jats:italic>Culex<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      species, and\n                      <jats:italic>Mansonia annulata<\/jats:italic>\n                      , which breed in shallow, stagnant or slow-moving water, such as marshes, swamps, rice fields and the margins of streams and puddles. These species were negatively associated with elevation, slopes and  forests and positively associated with grasslands, shrubs and crop fields. The second cluster included many rainforest mosquitoes of the genera\n                      <jats:italic>Armigeres<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Heizmannia<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Downsiomyia<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles dirus<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>An. jeyporiensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Culex bitaeniorhynchus<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Aedes pseudoalbopictus<\/jats:italic>\n                      , which breed in tree canopies and in natural surface water and containers such as bamboo stumps, tree holes and rainwater pools. These species were positively associated with elevation, slope, dense forests, surface water and wetlands and negatively associated with crop fields, grasslands and shrubs.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Transmission dynamics are particularly complex in this setting where people are exposed to bites of numerous vector species throughout the diel cycle. Environmental factors shape the assembly of mosquito species communities and largely determine the risk of exposure to vector bites.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-025-07217-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T02:04:14Z","timestamp":1766973854000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Assessment of mosquito species communities biting humans and their livestock in the forest hills of Karen state, Myanmar: a cross-sectional survey in six villages"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Victor","family":"Chaumeau","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thithiwarada","family":"Kularbkeeree","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Naw","family":"Gloria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Naw","family":"Jaruwan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sunisa","family":"Sawasdichai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chanapat","family":"Pateekhum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Florian","family":"Girond","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vincent","family":"Herbreteau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Nosten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"7217_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000888","volume":"4","author":"R McGready","year":"2010","unstructured":"McGready R, Ashley EA, Wuthiekanun V, Tan SO, Pimanpanarak M, Viladpai-Nguen SJ, et al. Arthropod borne disease: the leading cause of fever in pregnancy on the Thai-Burmese border. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4:e888. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000888.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"7217_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/s0035-9203(96)90102-9","volume":"90","author":"C Luxemburger","year":"1996","unstructured":"Luxemburger C, Thwai KL, White NJ, Webster HK, Kyle DE, Maelankirri L, et al. The epidemiology of malaria in a Karen population on the western border of Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1996;90:105\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0035-9203(96)90102-9.","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7217_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiz052","volume":"220","author":"EA Ashley","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ashley EA, Phyo AP, Carrara VI, Tun KM, Nosten F, Smithuis F, et al. Plasmodium vivax relapse rates following Plasmodium falciparum malaria reflect previous transmission intensity. J Infect Dis. 2019;220:100\u20134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/infdis\/jiz052.","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"7217_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1916","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)30792-X","volume":"391","author":"J Landier","year":"2018","unstructured":"Landier J, Parker DM, Thu AM, Lwin KM, Delmas G, Nosten FH. Effect of generalised access to early diagnosis and treatment and targeted mass drug administration on Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Eastern Myanmar: an observational study of a regional elimination programme. Lancet. 2018;391:1916\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)30792-X.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"7217_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.14761.4","volume":"3","author":"V Chaumeau","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chaumeau V, Fustec B, Nay Hsel S, Montazeau C, Naw Nyo S, Metaane S, et al. Entomological determinants of malaria transmission in Kayin state, Eastern Myanmar: a 24-month longitudinal study in four villages. Wellcome Open Res. 2018;3:109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.14761.4.","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res"},{"key":"7217_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010966","volume":"16","author":"U Thisyakorn","year":"2022","unstructured":"Thisyakorn U, Saokaew S, Gallagher E, Kastner R, Sruamsiri R, Oliver L, et al. Epidemiology and costs of dengue in Thailand: a systematic literature review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022;16:e0010966. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010966.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"7217_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.21-0436","volume":"105","author":"N Nanakorn","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nanakorn N, Pengsakul T, Bunrod K, Thammapalo S, Prikchoo P, Vongpunsawad S, et al. Chikungunya fever in Southern Thailand, 2018. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2021;105:955\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.21-0436.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7217_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30718-7","volume":"19","author":"K Ruchusatsawat","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ruchusatsawat K, Wongjaroen P, Posanacharoen A, Rodriguez-Barraquer I, Sangkitporn S, Cummings DAT, et al. Long-term circulation of Zika virus in Thailand: an observational study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19:439\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30718-7.","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"7217_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv173","volume":"212","author":"J Whitehorn","year":"2015","unstructured":"Whitehorn J, Kien DTH, Nguyen NM, Nguyen HL, Kyrylos PP, Carrington LB, et al. Comparative susceptibility of Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti to dengue virus infection after feeding on blood of viremic humans: implications for public health. J Infect Dis. 2015;212:1182\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/infdis\/jiv173.","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"7217_CR10","first-page":"51","volume":"23","author":"A Rudnick","year":"1986","unstructured":"Rudnick A, Lim TW. Dengue virus ecology in Malaysia. Inst Med Res Malays Bull. 1986;23:51\u2013152.","journal-title":"Inst Med Res Malays Bull"},{"key":"7217_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008450","volume":"14","author":"C-X Li","year":"2020","unstructured":"Li C-X, Guo X-X, Deng Y-Q, Liu Q-M, Xing D, Sun A-J, et al. Susceptibility of Armigeres subalbatus Coquillett (Diptera: Culicidae) to Zika virus through oral and urine infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0008450. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008450.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"7217_CR12","first-page":"45","volume":"47","author":"P Yadav","year":"2003","unstructured":"Yadav P, Gokhale MD, Barde PV, Singh DK, Mishra AC, Mourya DT. Experimental transmission of Chikungunya virus by Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. Acta Virol. 2003;47:45\u20137.","journal-title":"Acta Virol"},{"key":"7217_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.68.4.405","volume":"68","author":"T Solomon","year":"2000","unstructured":"Solomon T, Dung NM, Kneen R, Gainsborough M, Vaughn DW, Khanh VT. Japanese encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;68:405\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/jnnp.68.4.405.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"7217_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.3390\/v13061154","volume":"13","author":"H Auerswald","year":"2021","unstructured":"Auerswald H, Maquart P-O, Chevalier V, Boyer S. Mosquito vector competence for Japanese encephalitis virus. Viruses. 2021;13:1154. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13061154.","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"7217_CR15","unstructured":"Sasa M. Human filariasis: a global survey of epidemiology and control. Baltimore\u202f: University Park Press; 1976. http:\/\/archive.org\/details\/humanfilariasisg0000sasa. Accessed 6 Sept 2023."},{"key":"7217_CR16","first-page":"233","volume":"1","author":"C Harinasuta","year":"1970","unstructured":"Harinasuta C, Sucharit S, Deesin T, Surathin K, Vutikes S. Bancroftian filariasis in Thailand, a new endemic area. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1970;1:233\u201345.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR17","first-page":"141","volume":"29","author":"A Jitpakdi","year":"1998","unstructured":"Jitpakdi A, Choochote W, Panart P, Tookyang B, Panart K, Prajakwong S. Possible transmission of two types of Wuchereria bancrofti in Muang District, Chiang Mai, northern Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1998;29:141\u20133.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR18","first-page":"731","volume":"9","author":"MO Iyengar","year":"1953","unstructured":"Iyengar MO. Filariasis in Thailand. Bull World Health Organ. 1953;9:731\u201366.","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"7217_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.4103\/tp.TP_113_20","volume":"11","author":"J Thongpiya","year":"2021","unstructured":"Thongpiya J, Kreetitamrong S, Thongsit T, Toothong T, Rojanapanus S, Sarasombath PT. The first case report of subcutaneous dirofilariasis caused by Dirofilaria repens in Thailand. Trop Parasitol. 2021;11:125\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/tp.TP_113_20.","journal-title":"Trop Parasitol"},{"key":"7217_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2023.752-765","volume":"16","author":"A Bhumiratana","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bhumiratana A, Nunthawarasilp P, Intarapuk A, Pimnon S, Ritthison W. Emergence of zoonotic Brugia pahangi parasite in Thailand. Vet World. 2023;16:752\u201365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14202\/vetworld.2023.752-765.","journal-title":"Vet World"},{"key":"7217_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.21-0764","volume":"106","author":"Y Somsap","year":"2021","unstructured":"Somsap Y, Boonroumkaew P, Somsap A, Rodpai R, Sadaow L, Sanpool O, et al. Ocular dirofilariasis case in Thailand confirmed by molecular analysis to be caused by Dirofilaria immitis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2021;106:204\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.21-0764.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7217_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.24-0147","volume":"111","author":"PT Sarasombath","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sarasombath PT, Sitthinamsuwan P, Wijit S, Panyasu K, Roongruanchai K, Silpa-Archa S, et al. Integrated histological and molecular analysis of filarial species and associated Wolbachia endosymbionts in human filariasis cases presenting atypically in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2024;111:829\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.24-0147.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7217_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2010.09.010","volume":"60","author":"LH Tan","year":"2011","unstructured":"Tan LH, Fong MY, Mahmud R, Muslim A, Lau YL, Kamarulzaman A. Zoonotic Brugia pahangi filariasis in a suburbia of Kuala Lumpur City, Malaysia. Parasitol Int. 2011;60:111\u20133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.parint.2010.09.010.","journal-title":"Parasitol Int"},{"key":"7217_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2021.100261","volume":"13","author":"A Intarapuk","year":"2021","unstructured":"Intarapuk A, Bhumiratana A. Investigation of Armigeres subalbatus, a vector of zoonotic Brugia pahangi filariasis in plantation areas in Suratthani, Southern Thailand. One Health. 2021;13:100261. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.onehlt.2021.100261.","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"7217_CR25","first-page":"131","volume":"18","author":"W Choochote","year":"1987","unstructured":"Choochote W, Sukhavat K, Keha P, Somboon P, Khamboonruang C, Suwanpanit P. The prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis in stray dog and its potential vector in Amphur Muang Chiang Mai, Northern Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1987;18:131\u20134.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR26","first-page":"146","volume":"17","author":"W Choochote","year":"1986","unstructured":"Choochote W, Somboon P, Kamboonruang C, Suwanpanit P. A survey for natural vectors of Dirofilaria immitis in Chiang Mai Province, northern Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1986;17:146\u20137.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/traf037","author":"J Manikannan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Manikannan J, Sambath U, Sihag KK, Arif W, Srirama S, Prabavathy AA, et al. First report on the enzootic maintenance of Dirofilaria sp. hongkongensis in the canine hosts and mosquito vector Armigeres subalbatus (Coquillet) in Puducherry. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/trstmh\/traf037.","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7217_CR28","first-page":"611","volume":"12","author":"WH Cheong","year":"1981","unstructured":"Cheong WH, Mak JW, Naidu S, Mahadevan S. Armigeres subalbatus incriminated as an important vector of the dog heartworm Dirofilaria immitis and the bird Cardiofilaria in urban Kuala Lumpur. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1981;12:611\u20132.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-219","volume":"6","author":"A Muslim","year":"2013","unstructured":"Muslim A, Fong M-Y, Mahmud R, Lau Y-L, Sivanandam S. Armigeres subalbatus incriminated as a vector of zoonotic Brugia pahangi filariasis in suburban Kuala Lumpur, Peninsular Malaysia. Parasit Vectors. 2013;6:219. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1756-3305-6-219.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7217_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.12741.2","volume":"2","author":"DM Parker","year":"2017","unstructured":"Parker DM, Landier J, Thu AM, Lwin KM, Delmas G, Nosten FH. Scale up of a Plasmodium falciparum elimination program and surveillance system in Kayin State, Myanmar. Wellcome Open Res. 2017;2:98. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.12741.2.","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res"},{"key":"7217_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-018-0093-x","volume":"46","author":"KM Win","year":"2018","unstructured":"Win KM, Tripathy JP, Maung TM, Oo T, Thi A, Lon KN, et al. Rapid progress towards elimination of lymphatic filariasis in endemic regions of Myanmar as a result of 16 years of anti-filarial activities (2001\u20132016). Trop Med Health. 2018;46:14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s41182-018-0093-x.","journal-title":"Trop Med Health"},{"key":"7217_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.16564.2","volume":"6","author":"P Christensen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Christensen P, Bozdech Z, Watthanaworawit W, R\u00e9nia L, Malleret B, Ling C, et al. Reverse transcription PCR to detect low density malaria infections. Wellcome Open Res. 2021;6:39. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.16564.2.","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res"},{"key":"7217_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00706-19","author":"BA Mathison","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mathison BA, Couturier MR, Pritt BS. Diagnostic identification and differentiation of microfilariae. J Clin Microbiol. 2019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/JCM.00706-19.","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"7217_CR34","first-page":"1","volume":"36","author":"R Rattanarithikul","year":"2005","unstructured":"Rattanarithikul R, Harrison BA, Panthusiri P, Coleman RE. Illustrated keys to the mosquitoes of Thailand I. Background; geographic distribution; lists of genera, subgenera, and species; and a key to the genera. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2005;36:1\u201380.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR35","first-page":"1","volume":"36","author":"R Rattanarithikul","year":"2005","unstructured":"Rattanarithikul R, Harbach RE, Harrison BA, Panthusiri P, Jones JW, Coleman RE. Illustrated keys to the mosquitoes of Thailand. II. Genera Culex and Lutzia. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2005;36:1\u201397.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR36","first-page":"1","volume":"37","author":"R Rattanarithikul","year":"2006","unstructured":"Rattanarithikul R, Harrison BA, Panthusiri P, Peyton EL, Coleman RE. Illustrated keys to the mosquitoes of Thailand III. Genera Aedeomyia, Ficalbia, Mimomyia, Hodgesia, Coquillettidia, Mansonia, and Uranotaenia. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2006;37:1\u201385.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR37","first-page":"1","volume":"37","author":"R Rattanarithikul","year":"2006","unstructured":"Rattanarithikul R, Harrison BA, Harbach RE, Panthusiri P, Coleman RE, Panthusiri P. Illustrated keys to the mosquitoes of Thailand IV. Anopheles. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2006;37:1\u2013128.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR38","first-page":"1","volume":"38","author":"R Rattanarithikul","year":"2007","unstructured":"Rattanarithikul R, Harbach RE, Harrison BA, Panthusiri P, Coleman RE. Illustrated keys to the mosquitoes of Thailand V. Genera Orthopodomyia, Kimia, Malaya, Topomyia, Tripteroides, and Toxorhynchites. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2007;38:1\u201365.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR39","first-page":"1","volume":"41","author":"R Rattanarithikul","year":"2010","unstructured":"Rattanarithikul R, Harbach RE, Harrison BA, Panthusiri P, Coleman RE, Richardson JH. Illustrated keys to the mosquitoes of Thailand VI. Tribe Aedini. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2010;41:1\u2013225.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"7217_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00067-3","volume":"58","author":"B Gao","year":"1996","unstructured":"Gao B. NDWI\u2014a normalized difference water index for remote sensing of vegetation liquid water from space. Remote Sens Environ. 1996;58:257\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00067-3.","journal-title":"Remote Sens Environ"},{"key":"7217_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.00305","volume":"2","author":"M Padgham","year":"2017","unstructured":"Padgham M, Lovelace R, Salmon M, Rudis B. Osmdata. J Open Source Softw. 2017;2:305.","journal-title":"J Open Source Softw."},{"key":"7217_CR42","unstructured":"Hijmans RJ, Bivand R, Forner K, Ooms J, Pebesma E, Sumner MD. Package \u2018terra.\u2019 Maint Vienna Austria. 2022;384."},{"key":"7217_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-023-05915-w","volume":"16","author":"E Legendre","year":"2023","unstructured":"Legendre E, Girond F, Herbreteau V, Hoeun S, Rebaudet S, Thu AM, et al. \u201cForest malaria\u201d in Myanmar? Tracking transmission landscapes in a diversity of environments. Parasit Vectors. 2023;16:324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-023-05915-w.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7217_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.02272","volume":"5","author":"C Aybar","year":"2020","unstructured":"Aybar C, Wu Q, Bautista L, Yali R, Barja A. rgee: An R package for interacting with Google Earth Engine. J Open Source Softw. 2020;5:2272. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21105\/joss.02272.","journal-title":"J Open Source Softw"},{"key":"7217_CR45","volume-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing","author":"R Core Team","year":"2013","unstructured":"R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Core Team; 2013."},{"key":"7217_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1111\/oik.07202","volume":"130","author":"M Roswell","year":"2021","unstructured":"Roswell M, Dushoff J, Winfree R. A conceptual guide to measuring species diversity. Oikos. 2021;130:321\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/oik.07202.","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"7217_CR47","first-page":"20","volume":"775","author":"U Lund","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lund U, Agostinelli C, Agostinelli MC. Package \u2018circular.\u2019 Repos CRAN. 2017;775:20\u2013135.","journal-title":"Repos CRAN"},{"key":"7217_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2173","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.13303","volume":"10","author":"J Niku","year":"2019","unstructured":"Niku J, Hui FKC, Taskinen S, Warton DI. Gllvm: fast analysis of multivariate abundance data with generalized linear latent variable models in r. Methods Ecol Evol. 2019;10:2173\u201382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/2041-210X.13303.","journal-title":"Methods Ecol Evol"},{"key":"7217_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1179\/136485906X91512","volume":"100","author":"CA Guerra","year":"2006","unstructured":"Guerra CA, Snow RW, Hay SI. A global assessment of closed forests, deforestation and malaria risk. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2006;100:189\u2013204. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1179\/136485906X91512.","journal-title":"Ann Trop Med Parasitol"},{"key":"7217_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2009.05.005","volume":"11","author":"C Paupy","year":"2009","unstructured":"Paupy C, Delatte H, Bagny L, Corbel V, Fontenille D. Aedes albopictus, an arbovirus vector: from the darkness to the light. Microbes Infect. 2009;11:1177\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.micinf.2009.05.005.","journal-title":"Microbes Infect"},{"key":"7217_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14237","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-96146-9","volume":"15","author":"S Biswas","year":"2025","unstructured":"Biswas S, Rajkonwar J, Jena SR, Gogoi P, Nirmolia T, Vinayagam S, et al. Detection of a sympatric cryptic species mimicking Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in dengue and Chikungunya endemic forest villages of Tripura, India, posing a daunting challenge for vector research. Sci Rep. 2025;15:14237. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-96146-9.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"7217_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-12-363","volume":"12","author":"FM Smithuis","year":"2013","unstructured":"Smithuis FM, Kyaw MK, Phe UO, van der Broek I, Katterman N, Rogers C, et al. The effect of insecticide-treated bed nets on the incidence and prevalence of malaria in children in an area of unstable seasonal transmission in western Myanmar. Malar J. 2013;12:363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1475-2875-12-363.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"7217_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-12-364","volume":"12","author":"FM Smithuis","year":"2013","unstructured":"Smithuis FM, Kyaw MK, Phe UO, van der Broek I, Katterman N, Rogers C, et al. Entomological determinants of insecticide-treated bed net effectiveness in western Myanmar. Malar J. 2013;12:364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1475-2875-12-364.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"7217_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(95)90525-1","volume":"89","author":"P Somboon","year":"1995","unstructured":"Somboon P, Lines J, Aramrattana A, Chitprarop U, Prajakwong S, Khamboonruang C. Entomological evaluation of community-wide use of lambdacyhalothrin-impregnated bed nets against malaria in a border area of north-west Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1995;89:248\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0035-9203(95)90525-1.","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7217_CR55","first-page":"206","volume":"32","author":"IA Ismail","year":"1975","unstructured":"Ismail IA, Notananda V, Schepens J. Studies on malaria and responses of Anopheles balabacensis balabacensis and Anopheles minimus to DDT residual spraying in Thailand. Part II. Post-spraying observations. Acta Trop. 1975;32:206\u201331.","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"7217_CR56","first-page":"1","volume":"32","author":"W Suwonkerd","year":"1990","unstructured":"Suwonkerd W, Amg-Ung B, Rimwangtrakul K, Wongkattiyakul S, Kattiyamongkool B, Chitprarop U, et al. A field study on the response of Anopheles dirus to DDT and fenitrothion sprayed to huts in Phetchabun Province, Thailand. \u71b1\u5e2f\u533b\u5b66 Trop Med \u9577\u5d0e\u5927\u5b66\u71b1\u5e2f\u533b\u5b66\u7814\u7a76\u6240. 1990;32:1\u20135.","journal-title":"\u71b1\u5e2f\u533b\u5b66 Trop Med \u9577\u5d0e\u5927\u5b66\u71b1\u5e2f\u533b\u5b66\u7814\u7a76\u6240"},{"key":"7217_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)30148-7","volume":"16","author":"V Sluydts","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sluydts V, Durnez L, Heng S, Gryseels C, Canier L, Kim S, et al. Efficacy of topical mosquito repellent (picaridin) plus long-lasting insecticidal nets versus long-lasting insecticidal nets alone for control of malaria: a cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16:1169\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)30148-7.","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"7217_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2915.1998.00115.x","volume":"12","author":"SW Lindsay","year":"1998","unstructured":"Lindsay SW, Ewald JA, Samung Y, Apiwathnasorn C, Nosten F. Thanaka (Limonia acidissima) and deet (di-methyl benzamide) mixture as a mosquito repellent for use by Karen women. Med Vet Entomol. 1998;12:295\u2013301. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1046\/j.1365-2915.1998.00115.x.","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"key":"7217_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0274320","volume":"17","author":"V Chaumeau","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chaumeau V, Kajeechiwa L, Kulabkeeree T, Sawasdichai S, Haohankhunnatham W, Inta A, et al. Outdoor residual spraying for malaria vector-control in Kayin (Karen) state, Myanmar: a cluster randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE. 2022;17:e0274320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0274320.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"7217_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-015-1063-y","volume":"15","author":"C Chaccour","year":"2016","unstructured":"Chaccour C, Killeen GF. Mind the gap: residual malaria transmission, veterinary endectocides and livestock as targets for malaria vector control. Malar J. 2016;15:24. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-015-1063-y.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"7217_CR61","first-page":"428","volume":"11","author":"R Rattanarithikul","year":"1995","unstructured":"Rattanarithikul R, Green CA, Panyim S, Noigamol C, Chanaimongkol S, Mahapibul P. Larval habitats of malaria vectors and other Anopheles mosquitoes around a transmission focus in northwestern Thailand. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1995;11:428\u201333.","journal-title":"J Am Mosq Control Assoc"},{"key":"7217_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-24055-2","volume":"12","author":"K Chan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chan K, Bottomley C, Saito K, Lines J, Tusting LS. The control of malaria vectors in rice fields: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2022;12:19694. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-022-24055-2.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"7217_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2102-z","volume":"10","author":"V Chaumeau","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chaumeau V, Cerqueira D, Zadrozny J, Kittiphanakun P, Andolina C, Chareonviriyaphap T, et al. Insecticide resistance in malaria vectors along the Thailand-Myanmar border. Parasit Vectors. 2017;10:165. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-017-2102-z.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7217_CR64","volume-title":"A field guide to the forest trees of northern Thailand","author":"S Gardner","year":"2000","unstructured":"Gardner S, Anusarnsunthorn V. A field guide to the forest trees of northern Thailand. Bankok: Kobfai Publishing; 2000."},{"key":"7217_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007831","volume":"14","author":"AL Wilson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wilson AL, Courtenay O, Kelly-Hope LA, Scott TW, Takken W, Torr SJ, et al. The importance of vector control for the control and elimination of vector-borne diseases. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0007831. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007831.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"7217_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-03271-z","volume":"19","author":"A Monroe","year":"2020","unstructured":"Monroe A, Moore S, Okumu F, Kiware S, Lobo NF, Koenker H, et al. Methods and indicators for measuring patterns of human exposure to malaria vectors. Malar J. 2020;19:207. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12936-020-03271-z.","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"7217_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.73080","volume":"10","author":"EA Kearney","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kearney EA, Agius PA, Chaumeau V, Cutts JC, Simpson JA, Fowkes FJI. Anopheles salivary antigens as serological biomarkers of vector exposure and malaria transmission: a systematic review with multilevel modelling. Elife. 2021;10:e73080. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.73080.","journal-title":"Elife"}],"container-title":["Parasites &amp; Vectors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07217-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07217-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07217-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T14:32:18Z","timestamp":1769783538000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07217-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["7217"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07217-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["1756-3305"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1756-3305","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]]},"assertion":[{"value":"31 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 December 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"29 December 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study was approved by the ethics review committee on medical research involving humans from Myanmar, Ministry of Health and Sports, Department of Medical Research, lower Myanmar (reference 73\/Ethics 2014), the Oxford Tropical Research Ethics Committee (reference 17\u201318), the Tak Province Border Community Ethics Advisory Board (reference TCAB-201807) and the Karen Department of Health and Welfare, Karen National Union. All individuals participating in the study provided written informed consent.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"58"}}