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One strategy to reduce populations of zoophagic\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      (i.e., likely to feed on other animals as well as humans) is the use of systemic veterinary parasiticides. The most widely systemic parasiticide used for this purpose is ivermectin. Ivermectin is available for livestock in two formulations; injectable and topical \u201cpour-on.\u201d The purpose of this study was to evaluate the survival and fecundity of a zoophagic species,\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                      , when fed on calves treated with different ivermectin formulations.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Three groups of four dairy calves were used; calves in one group received a single subcutaneous injection of commercial ivermectin, calves in another group were treated topically once with pour-on ivermectin, and the third group was left untreated. At various times after treatment, groups of mosquitoes were fed simultaneously on different parts of the body to determine if feeding location of mosquitoes influenced the efficacy of treatment. Engorged mosquitoes were maintained for 7 days to monitor survival and fecundity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Both formulations significantly reduced\n                      <jats:italic>An. stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                      survival and fecundity for up to 9 and 14\u00a0days, respectively, following treatment of calves. Topical formulation of ivermectin applied to the back of the calves significantly reduced the survival of\n                      <jats:italic>An. stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                      that fed on the back for up to 23\u00a0days after treatment, but not for mosquitoes that fed concurrently on the belly or the leg of the same calves, suggesting that a portion of topically applied ivermectin may remain at the site of application. Mosquitoes were less likely to feed on topically treated calves, implying that topical application may confer some mild repellency.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Determining the body location(s) where zoophagic\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      mosquitoes feed on livestock (e.g., legs) will allow targeted application and methods (e.g., foot baths) for more efficient use of topical formulations of ivermectin as part of an integrated zoophagic vector management strategy.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-025-07225-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T08:53:55Z","timestamp":1769849635000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Efficacy of injectable versus topical formulation of ivermectin against Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes feeding on different body locations of treated Holstein calves"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Staci M.","family":"Dreyer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Todd","family":"Molden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marc L.","family":"Bauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Colleen","family":"Pfaff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David J.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jefferson A.","family":"Vaughan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"7225_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.30875\/9789287076717","volume-title":"World Malaria Report 2024","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2024","unstructured":"World Health Organization. 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