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Both pathogens co-circulate extensively in the Mediterranean basin and may share hosts and vectors, raising the possibility of mixed infections with epidemiological relevance. While previous studies have suggested interactions between TOSV and\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      in mammalian hosts and in vitro systems, evidence from natural vectors is still lacking. Understanding these interactions is essential for predicting transmission outcomes in areas of pathogen overlap.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We investigated coinfection dynamics of TOSV and\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania infantum<\/jats:italic>\n                      in their natural vector,\n                      <jats:italic>Phlebotomus tobbi<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Female sand flies were experimentally challenged with both pathogens through blood feeding. We measured infection rates, dissemination rates, and infection intensity levels at days 4 and 8 postinfection (p.i.) and compared the coinfected groups with the control harboring a single infection.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      At day 4 (D4) p.i., the coinfection resulted in significant suppression of both pathogens: TOSV infection rates decreased, as did\n                      <jats:italic>L. infantum<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection rates. However, neither infection intensity nor viral dissemination showed significant differences between groups. By day 8 (D8) p.i.,\n                      <jats:italic>L. infantum<\/jats:italic>\n                      maintained a negative effect on TOSV infection, while TOSV did not alter\n                      <jats:italic>L. infantum<\/jats:italic>\n                      development. Dissemination and parasite load remained unaffected.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Our findings suggest competitive interactions between TOSV and\n                      <jats:italic>L. infantum<\/jats:italic>\n                      in sand flies, providing the first experimental indication of pathogen\u2013pathogen interference within a natural vector. Such competition likely contributes to the rarity of coinfected sand flies in field surveys and highlights the importance of considering vector-level interactions when assessing transmission risks in endemic regions.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-025-07237-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T13:33:28Z","timestamp":1770903208000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Negative interactions between Toscana virus and Leishmania infantum limit coinfection in sand flies"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Marketa","family":"Stejskalova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nikola","family":"Polanska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sophie","family":"Desloire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maxime","family":"Ratinier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Petr","family":"Volf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Magdalena","family":"Jancarova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"7237_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.2012.01034.x","volume":"27","author":"M Maroli","year":"2013","unstructured":"Maroli M, Feliciangeli MD, Bichaud L, Charrel RN, Gradoni L. 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