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This study investigates resistance of\n                      <jats:italic>Ae. aegypti<\/jats:italic>\n                      to pyrethroids (permethrin, deltamethrin) and organophosphates (malathion, pirimiphos-methyl) and their\u00a0underlying mechanisms\u00a0across Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and the USA.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Adult female\n                      <jats:italic>Ae. aegypti<\/jats:italic>\n                      (3\u20135\u00a0days old, non-blood-fed) were subjected to World Health Organization (WHO) tube bioassays using 0.4% permethrin, 0.03% deltamethrin, 5% malathion, and 60\u00a0mg\/m\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      pirimiphos-methyl. Each assay included four replicates of 25 mosquitoes, with mortality assessed at\u00a024\u00a0h post-exposure. Genomic DNA was extracted from 10 resistant individuals per population, and two coding regions of the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) gene (domains II and III) were amplified and sequenced to detect known and novel\n                      <jats:italic>kdr<\/jats:italic>\n                      mutations. For biochemical analysis, 40 newly emerged, non-blood-fed females per strain were individually homogenized to quantify mixed-function oxidase (MFO), esterase (\u03b1- and \u03b2-EST), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      High resistance levels were recorded in Malaysian and US\n                      <jats:italic>Ae. aegypti<\/jats:italic>\n                      strains, with low mortality ranging between 9% and 22% for pyrethroids. New mutations T1520I (8\u201315%) and I1011M (10\u201315%) were identified in Malaysian populations, the first detection of T1520I in the country, while V1016I (10%) was newly detected in Indonesian strains. Malaysian mosquitoes had multiple\n                      <jats:italic>kdr<\/jats:italic>\n                      mutations (S989P, V1016G, F1534C, and T1520I) in triple- and quadruple-haplotype combinations. The US Riverside strain showed a nine- to 10-fold increase in \u03b2-EST and three- to fivefold increase in MFO and GST activity compared to the VCRU susceptible strain, indicating strong metabolic resistance. In contrast, the highly resistant Malaysian Hamna strain exhibited no significant upregulation (\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&gt;\u20090.05) in detoxifying enzymes, suggesting resistance was driven primarily by\n                      <jats:italic>kdr<\/jats:italic>\n                      mutations. Thai strains lacked\n                      <jats:italic>kdr<\/jats:italic>\n                      mutations but exhibited altered AChE (20\u201335% remaining activity) and elevated GST (2\u20133 times higher than control).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The detection of novel\n                      <jats:italic>kdr<\/jats:italic>\n                      mutations and diverse resistance mechanisms underscores the adaptability of\n                      <jats:italic>Ae. aegypti<\/jats:italic>\n                      to insecticide pressure and highlights the urgent need for continuous monitoring and integrated resistance management strategies.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-026-07252-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T03:45:00Z","timestamp":1770435900000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Pyrethroids and organophosphate resistance in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) and their underlying mechanisms"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Wan Fatma","family":"Zuharah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shao-Hung Dennis","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatin Nabila","family":"Abdullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Asfa Nurizzah Zin","family":"Azman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ikhsan","family":"Guswenrivo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beni","family":"Ernawan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Titik","family":"Kartika","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Theerakamol","family":"Pengsakul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianyun","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chow-Yang","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"7252_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1093\/biosci\/biy119","volume":"68","author":"RP Jeffrey","year":"2018","unstructured":"Jeffrey RP, Andrea GS, Panayiota K. 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