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Similar to most arthropods, they harbor nonobligate endosymbionts that may influence host adaptation and pathogen transmission, but these symbiont communities remain poorly characterized in\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      -endemic African sand flies.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We screened 1700 wild-caught phlebotomine sand flies (1266 females, 434 males) from Kenya\u2019s Baringo, Nakuru, and Kajiado counties, and 253 colony\n                      <jats:italic>Phlebotomus duboscqi<\/jats:italic>\n                      , for\n                      <jats:italic>Rickettsia<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Spiroplasma<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Cardinium<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Arsenophonus<\/jats:italic>\n                      , Microsporidia, and\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      by high-resolution melting analysis and sequencing of PCR products.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In wild sand flies (\n                      <jats:italic>Phlebotomus<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Sergentomyia<\/jats:italic>\n                      spp.),\n                      <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>\n                      spp. were most common (8.5%, 145\/1700), with particularly high prevalences in\n                      <jats:italic>Ph. mireillae<\/jats:italic>\n                      (92.3%, 12\/13),\n                      <jats:italic>Ph. guggisbergi<\/jats:italic>\n                      (73.2%, 82\/112), and\n                      <jats:italic>Ph. saevus<\/jats:italic>\n                      (48.6%, 18\/37), followed by\n                      <jats:italic>Spiroplasma<\/jats:italic>\n                      (1.4%, 23\/1700),\n                      <jats:italic>Rickettsia<\/jats:italic>\n                      (0.7%, 12\/1700),\n                      <jats:italic>Cardinium<\/jats:italic>\n                      (0.4%, 6\/1700),\n                      <jats:italic>Tubulinosema<\/jats:italic>\n                      sp. (0.1%, 1\/1700), and various gut bacteria (1.8%, 30\/1700). In addition, we detected\n                      <jats:italic>Rickettsia africae<\/jats:italic>\n                      , a tick-borne pathogen causing African tick-bite fever (ATBF), in\n                      <jats:italic>Ph. martini<\/jats:italic>\n                      (4.7%, 5\/106),\n                      <jats:italic>Ph. guggisbergi<\/jats:italic>\n                      (1.8%, 2\/112),\n                      <jats:italic>S. schwetzi<\/jats:italic>\n                      (0.4%, 1\/263),\n                      <jats:italic>S. clydei<\/jats:italic>\n                      (0.5%, 2\/440), and\n                      <jats:italic>Sergentomyia<\/jats:italic>\n                      sp. (0.3%, 1\/371). Notably,\n                      <jats:italic>R. africae<\/jats:italic>\n                      DNA was found in one male\n                      <jats:italic>Ph. martini<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Rickettsia<\/jats:italic>\n                      sp. DNA in one male\n                      <jats:italic>S. clydei<\/jats:italic>\n                      and one male\n                      <jats:italic>S. schwetzi<\/jats:italic>\n                      , consistent with infection rather than blood-meal contamination. Furthermore,\n                      <jats:italic>Rickettsia<\/jats:italic>\n                      endosymbionts were positively associated with\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      DNA (OR\u2009=\u200920.31; 95% CI [4.93, 77.03];\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.0001), including within\n                      <jats:italic>Phlebotomus<\/jats:italic>\n                      (OR\u2009=\u200913.54; 95% CI [2.33, 78.88];\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.0017).\n                      <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>\n                      also correlated with\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      overall (OR\u2009=\u20092.46; 95% CI [1.17, 4.79];\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.011), though not within individual fly genera. Colony\n                      <jats:italic>Ph. duboscqi<\/jats:italic>\n                      harbored only\n                      <jats:italic>Serratia<\/jats:italic>\n                      and other gut bacteria.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Sand flies in Kenya harbored six endosymbionts, including the first detection of pathogenic\n                      <jats:italic>R. africae<\/jats:italic>\n                      in sand flies, and gut bacteria that may influence vector competence. The frequent co-occurrence of\n                      <jats:italic>Rickettsia<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>\n                      endosymbionts with\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      indicates nonrandom associations between symbionts and parasite infection, without implying causality. These findings reveal previously undescribed sand-fly\u2013microbe interactions, and highlight the need for experimental studies to test whether sand flies contribute to the ecology and potential transmission of ATBF.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-026-07283-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T11:14:14Z","timestamp":1770808454000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Sand fly endosymbionts in Kenya: Rickettsia and Wolbachia associations with Leishmania and detection of Rickettsia africae"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4932-296X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steve","family":"Kiplagat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7737-8069","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Damaris","family":"Matoke-Muhia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9469-399X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barrack O.","family":"Owino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David P.","family":"Tchouassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7513-0887","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel K.","family":"Masiga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7163-7784","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregory D. 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