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This study examined the larval habitats of malaria vectors in North Sumatra to assess the potential of larval source management as a control strategy for both human and zoonotic malaria vectors.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Multiple larval habitat surveys in the areas surrounding two dusuns with documented human and zoonotic (\n                      <jats:italic>P. knowlesi<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) malaria cases in Langkat Regency, North Sumatra, were conducted over 2 years, encompassing both wet and dry seasons. Larval habitats were characterized by mosquito immature presence and density, land-use type where found, aquatic habitat class (i.e., naturally occurring, man-made from natural materials or man-made from artificial materials), and habitat subclass for a range of abiotic and biotic parameters.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 1413 mosquito larvae and 98 pupae were collected.\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      larvae comprised 20.6% of all mosquito immatures.\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles maculatus<\/jats:italic>\n                      comprised 65.3% of all immature anophelines, followed by\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles dirus<\/jats:italic>\n                      (21.9%),\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles scanloni<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles kochi<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles vagus<\/jats:italic>\n                      in order of abundance. Habitat class predicted anopheline presence and density, with larvae occurring more frequently in naturally occurring habitats and man-made habitats from natural materials than in artificial man-made habitats (presence: generalized linear mixed model [GLMM]\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009\u2009\u22121.45,\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.006; density:\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009\u2009\u22121.42,\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.001). At the habitat subclass level,\n                      <jats:italic>An. maculatus<\/jats:italic>\n                      larvae were most frequently detected in natural habitats, particularly stream margins. Meanwhile,\n                      <jats:italic>An. dirus<\/jats:italic>\n                      larvae occurred approximately equally in natural habitats and man-made habitats from natural materials, with tire tracks being the most common habitat subclass. Four species (\n                      <jats:italic>An. maculatus<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>An<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                      <jats:italic>dirus<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>An<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                      <jats:italic>scanloni<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>An<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                      <jats:italic>kochi<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) were detected, albeit infrequently, in man-made habitats from artificial materials.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In North Sumatra, anopheline vector species utilize a diverse range of larval habitats, including natural and man-made, on both natural substrates and artificial materials. Species-specific habitat preferences were observed:\n                      <jats:italic>An. dirus<\/jats:italic>\n                      was found in both natural and man-made habitats from natural materials, whereas\n                      <jats:italic>An. maculatus<\/jats:italic>\n                      was predominantly found in more dispersed and inaccessible natural sites, suggesting that larval control may be more challenging for\n                      <jats:italic>An. maculatus<\/jats:italic>\n                      than\n                      <jats:italic>An. dirus<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-026-07441-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T03:43:57Z","timestamp":1779075837000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Larval habitat preferences of Anopheles dirus and Anopheles maculatus in North Sumatra, Indonesia"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Boni F.","family":"Sebayang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahadi","family":"Kurniawan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adzkia M.","family":"Haq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yesika Y.","family":"Sianturi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nursal","family":"Nursal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Inke N. 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