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While warming is expected to expand sand fly ranges, the joint effects of long-term climatic variability and land-use change on population dynamics remain poorly understood, largely owing to limited long-term monitoring.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We analyzed an 18-year dataset (2005\u20132021) from a site in semi-arid Ma\u2019ale Adumim, Israel, using CO\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      -baited traps. Land-cover change was quantified using remote sensing, focusing on the establishment of a managed urban park near the site. Climatic variables from the Israel Meteorological Service and ERA5 were related to interannual variation in abundance and seasonal phenology characters (median seasonal timing and peak timing).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A marked land-cover transformation associated with an irrigated park was identified, increasing dry-season vegetation. Sand fly species showed contrasting long-term trends and phase-dependent responses:\n                      <jats:italic>Phlebotomus sergenti<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>P. papatasi<\/jats:italic>\n                      were most abundant immediately after landscape modification and declined later, whereas\n                      <jats:italic>P. tobbi<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>P. syriacus<\/jats:italic>\n                      increased after park establishment. Seasonal activity was strongly species-specific with limited interspecific synchrony. Climatic variability explained little interannual variation overall; only\n                      <jats:italic>P. tobbi<\/jats:italic>\n                      maximum abundance and timing of within-season population increase were associated with the timing of thermal onset.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Anthropogenic land-use change dominated long-term sand fly population dynamics, often exceeding climatic effects, and altered habitat suitability in species-specific, phase-dependent ways. Integrating land management and spatial planning into prevention strategies is critical for reducing leishmaniasis risk in human-modified landscapes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-026-07475-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T11:13:26Z","timestamp":1780658006000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Long-term monitoring of sand fly populations: temporal responses to land-use change and climatic variability"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Yoni","family":"Waitz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shlomit","family":"Paz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shirly","family":"Elbaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Debora","family":"Diaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ira","family":"Ben-Avi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liora","family":"Studentsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eran","family":"Hacklai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shai","family":"Reicher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ron","family":"Drori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maia","family":"Davidovich-Cohen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laor","family":"Orshan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oscar David","family":"Kirstein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"7475_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2025.106415","author":"N Ayhan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ayhan N, Eldin C, Charrel R. 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