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However, its application to livestock-associated bacterial pathogens at human\u2013animal\u2013wildlife interfaces remains underexplored. We investigated whether mosquito blood meals could be used to detect tick-borne bacterial pathogens circulating in livestock in Kenya.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We collected 4673 mosquitoes, belonging to\n                      <jats:italic>Culex<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Aedes<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Mansonia<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>Coquillettidia<\/jats:italic>\n                      genera around livestock enclosures in Kajiado and Naivasha counties, Kenya, using CO\u2082-baited CDC miniature light traps. Traps were selected to maximise species diversity, and as light traps capture fewer engorged mosquitoes than resting traps, only 56 blood-fed individuals (1.2%) were collected and processed as whole-specimen homogenates and analysed for vertebrate blood-meal sources using\n                      <jats:italic>cytochrome b<\/jats:italic>\n                      sequencing. In total, 303 mosquito pools, including blood-fed individuals processed as single-mosquito pools, were screened for\n                      <jats:italic>Anaplasma<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Ehrlichia<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Rickettsia, Theileria,<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Babesia<\/jats:italic>\n                      using PCR\u2013high-resolution melting analysis and confirmatory sequencing.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      All pathogen-positive detections were exclusively from blood-fed individuals. We detected\n                      <jats:italic>Anaplasma marginale<\/jats:italic>\n                      in\n                      <jats:italic>Culex pipiens<\/jats:italic>\n                      (1\/150; 0.7%) and\n                      <jats:italic>Aedes hirsutus<\/jats:italic>\n                      (2\/11; 18.2%),\n                      <jats:italic>Anaplasma<\/jats:italic>\n                      sp. in\n                      <jats:italic>Cx. pipiens<\/jats:italic>\n                      (2\/150; 1.4%) and\n                      <jats:italic>Ae. hirsutus<\/jats:italic>\n                      (1\/11; 9.1%), and\n                      <jats:italic>Candidatus<\/jats:italic>\n                      Neoehrlichia mikurensis in\n                      <jats:italic>Mansonia africana<\/jats:italic>\n                      (2\/50; 4%). Pathogen detections showed strong host concordance, where\n                      <jats:italic>A. marginale<\/jats:italic>\n                      was associated with cattle-derived blood meals and\n                      <jats:italic>Anaplasma<\/jats:italic>\n                      sp. with goat-derived blood meals, while\n                      <jats:italic>Candidatus<\/jats:italic>\n                      Neoehrlichia mikurensis was detected in\n                      <jats:italic>Mn. africana<\/jats:italic>\n                      that had fed on cattle and on a host that could not be determined.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Our results provide preliminary evidence that mosquito-based xenosurveillance can detect tick-borne bacterial pathogens circulating in livestock at human\u2013wildlife interfaces in Kenya. The strong concordance between pathogen identity and vertebrate host in blood-fed mosquitoes supports the biological plausibility of this approach. Notably, detection of\n                      <jats:italic>Ca.<\/jats:italic>\n                      Neoehrlichia mikurensis represents the first report of this zoonotic pathogen in mosquitoes in Africa, highlighting the One Health relevance of xenosurveillance in identifying settings, where pathogen circulation and cross-interface feeding coincide. Mosquito-derived sampling has potential to complement existing surveillance tools in agro-pastoral systems, where direct host sampling is difficult or costly.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-026-07510-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T09:35:04Z","timestamp":1781861704000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Mosquito-based xenosurveillance reveals circulation of Anaplasma and Neoehrlichia in livestock at a human\u2013wildlife interface in Kenya"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Dennis","family":"Getange","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samson","family":"Mukaratirwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oscar","family":"Esibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Epaphrus","family":"Yuko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Kabii","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rua","family":"Khogali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jandouwe","family":"Villinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"7510_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23203","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-73820-y","volume":"14","author":"CJSP Vieira","year":"2024","unstructured":"Vieira CJSP, Gyawali N, Onn MB, Shivas MA, Shearman D, Darbro JM, et al. 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Mosquitoes were sampled using CDC light traps placed in the vicinity of cattle enclosures; no animals or humans were handled during the study. Prior to trap placement, livestock owners were briefed about the study and informed oral consent was obtained from the household heads before proceeding with trapping of mosquitoes on their property.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interest.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"371"}}