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Specimens were morphologically identified, and spatiotemporal variations in population parameters (abundance, diversity, and vector compositions) analysed using mixed-effects general linearised models. In conjunction with recent human CL case incidence data, a Composite Exposure Risk Index (CERI) was calculated.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 7,759 sand flies representing 20 species and 10 genera were collected over two years sampling, identifying seven known\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      vectors. Five species,\n                      <jats:italic>Dampfomyia deleoni<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Trichophoromyia triramula<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Pintomyia ovallesi<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Psychodopygus panamensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>Brumptomyia mesai<\/jats:italic>\n                      , accounted for\u2009&gt;\u200990% of all captures. Sand fly abundance varied significantly by sampling site and year. Species richness and diversity were highest in intact forest habitats and lowest in coastal and disturbed environments. CERI values identified areas of high to low risk of human-sand fly contact leading to clinical CL.\n                      <jats:italic>Lutzomyia longipalpis<\/jats:italic>\n                      , the principal vector of visceral leishmaniasis in the Americas, and\n                      <jats:italic>Psathyromyia soccula<\/jats:italic>\n                      , were recorded for the first time in Belize.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This study provides a contemporary quantification of sand flies and sand fly vector spatiotemporal abundance and diversity in north-west and central-east Belize, highlighting areas of higher potential human risk of\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      exposure.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-026-07594-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T17:07:12Z","timestamp":1786122432000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Spatiotemporal distribution, abundance, diversity and risk of human exposure to phlebotomine sand flies, vectors of Leishmania in Belize"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Ngwa","family":"Niba Rawlings","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark Stephen","family":"Bailey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Orin","family":"Courtenay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"7594_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.2012.01034.x","volume":"27","author":"M Maroli","year":"2013","unstructured":"Maroli M, Feliciangeli MD, Bichaud L, Charrel RN, Gradoni L. 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Observation map.\u00a0https:\/\/nms.gov.bz\/data\/observation-map\/.\u00a0Accessed 13 Sept 2024."}],"container-title":["Parasites &amp; Vectors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07594-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07594-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07594-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T20:02:50Z","timestamp":1790107370000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07594-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["7594"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07594-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["1756-3305"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1756-3305","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 March 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 August 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Ethical clearance was obtained from the British Ministry of Defence (MODREC - 2354\/MODREC\/24) and the Belize Ministry of Health and Wellness (GEN\/147\/01\/24 [\n                      \n                      ] Vol. VI). BATSUB granted the necessary permissions and access to the JTAs. The University of Warwick, UK, acted as an educational sponsor (SOC.02\/23-24).","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethical approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"406"}}