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Migratory birds typically time their movements using photoperiodic cues, whereas the activity of ectoparasites such as ticks is largely temperature dependent. This difference in environmental drivers may create climate-induced phenological mismatches that reshape host\u2013parasite interactions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We investigated tick infestation in migratory thrushes during late-autumn migration in Belgium, a period historically assumed to fall largely outside the main activity season of\n                      <jats:italic>Ixodes ricinus<\/jats:italic>\n                      . In addition, we screened ticks collected from these birds for tick-borne pathogens. Both sampling years (2022 and 2024) showed unusually mild autumn conditions.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      284 redwings (\n                      <jats:italic>Turdus iliacus<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) were examined, revealing exceptionally high tick infestation rates (72.9%), the highest reported for this species in Europe.\n                      <jats:italic>Ixodes ricinus<\/jats:italic>\n                      predominated, and screening of 698 ticks showed that 12.9% carried\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia<\/jats:italic>\n                      spp., including multiple avian- and mammalian-associated genospecies as well as\n                      <jats:italic>Borrelia miyamotoi<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Infected ticks were present on nearly one-third of birds. First calendar-year birds carried significantly higher tick loads than older individuals. Extrapolation to the European redwing population suggests that tens of millions of infected ticks may be transported southward each autumn.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings indicate that late-autumn migration can coincide with substantial tick activity under mild climatic conditions, creating a previously overlooked seasonal window for parasite dispersal. Because migration timing is relatively stable whereas parasite activity is climate sensitive, continued warming is likely to strengthen this phenological overlap.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-026-07673-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T15:04:21Z","timestamp":1789225461000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Lyme beyond the season: late-autumn dissemination of infected ticks by southward migrating redwings (Turdus iliacus)"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Dieter J. 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