{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T09:44:27Z","timestamp":1792662267999,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790985600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792627200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":19,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Parasites Vectors"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Tsetse-transmitted African animal trypanosomosis (AAT)\u00a0remains a widespread and major constraint to sustainable development and food security in vast areas of sub-Saharan Africa. In Ghana, like in most endemic countries, data on the occurrence of the tsetse vector and the disease are available at the country level, but for a long time information has been scattered and poorly harmonized, thus hampering proper analysis and evidence-based decision-making.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control Unit (TTCU) in Ghana collated, harmonized, georeferenced and centralized in a single database (the \u2018atlas\u2019) all the available field data on tsetse and AAT occurrence for period 1992\u20132025. For the tsetse component, 3087 trapping records corresponding to 2864 trapping locations and 26,121 flies caught were included. For the AAT component, 740 herd-level records were assembled (393 survey sites and 26,653 tested animals).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Both tsetse and AAT were found to be widespread in Ghana. Three of the 10 historically reported tsetse species were detected:\n                      <jats:italic>Glossina tachinoides<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>G. palpalis<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>G. morsitans<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                      <jats:italic>G. palpalis<\/jats:italic>\n                      is the only one with a country-wide distribution, while\n                      <jats:italic>G. tachinoides<\/jats:italic>\n                      is more common in the northern part of the country and\n                      <jats:italic>G. morsitans<\/jats:italic>\n                      populations are smaller, more fragmented and mainly confined to protected areas. In the Upper West region, major tsetse control operations were carried out in 2010, whose gains in terms of reduction of fly densities seem to have been sustained over time. As regards animal trypanosomosis, almost 90% of the data were collected on cattle. The average prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis is 7.7% (825\/10,766) with the buffy coat technique, which was used on over two thirds of the randomly selected samples. Predictably, higher prevalence was measured with more sensitive but less frequently used diagnostics, i.e. antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ab-ELISA) (22%, 720\/3277) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (17%, 332\/1949).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The national atlas of tsetse and AAT in Ghana, already developed by 2018, was regularly updated ever since. It is now the pillar of data management for the TTCU, and it is used to measure and drive country progress along the progressive control pathway for AAT. The open data policy will also enable to maximize the atlas reuse and impact.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-026-07725-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T08:44:42Z","timestamp":1791017082000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A national atlas of tsetse flies and African animal trypanosomosis in Ghana"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Benita","family":"Anderson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yahaya","family":"Adam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles","family":"Mahama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yakubu","family":"Sakara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Enoch","family":"Sottie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Massimo","family":"Paone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giuliano","family":"Cecchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"7725_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4060\/cd7991en","volume-title":"The progressive control pathway for African animal trypanosomosis \u2013 Operational guidelines","author":"FAO","year":"2025","unstructured":"FAO. The progressive control pathway for African animal trypanosomosis  \u2013 Operational guidelines. Rome: FAO; 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4060\/cd7991en."},{"key":"7725_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1079\/9780851994758.0331","volume-title":"The trypanosomiases","author":"K Taylor","year":"2004","unstructured":"Taylor K, Authi\u00e9 EML. Pathogenesis of animal trypanosomiasis. In: Maudlin I, Holmes PH, Miles MA, editors. The trypanosomiases. Wallingford: CABI Publishing; 2004. p. 331\u201353."},{"key":"7725_CR3","volume-title":"Terrestrial animal health code","author":"WOAH","year":"2024","unstructured":"WOAH. Infection with Trypanosoma brucei, T. congolense, T. simiae and T. vivax. In: Terrestrial animal health code. Paris: WOAH; 2024."},{"key":"7725_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4060\/cd2022en","volume-title":"The continental atlas of the distribution of tsetse flies in Africa","author":"G Cecchi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cecchi G, Paone M, de Gier J, Zhao W. The continental atlas of the distribution of tsetse flies in Africa. PAAT Technical and Scientific Series, No. 12. Rome: FAO; 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4060\/cd2022en."},{"key":"7725_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2003.10.015","volume":"119","author":"M Desquesnes","year":"2004","unstructured":"Desquesnes M, Dia ML. Mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma vivax in cattle by the African tabanid Atylotus fuscipes. Vet Parasitol. 2004;119:9\u201319.","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-1556-5_11","volume-title":"Trypanosomes and trypanosomiasis","author":"MI Gonzatti","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gonzatti MI, Gonz\u00e1lez-Baradat B, Aso PM, Reyna-Bello A. Trypanosoma (Duttonella) vivax and typanosomosis in Latin America: secadera\/huequera\/cacho hueco. In: Magez S, Radwanska M, editors. Trypanosomes and trypanosomiasis. Vienna: Springer; 2014. p. 261\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-7091-1556-5_11."},{"key":"7725_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2021.102450","volume":"86","author":"MM Asghari","year":"2022","unstructured":"Asghari MM, Rassouli M. First identification of Trypanosoma vivax among camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Yazd, central Iran, jointly with Trypanosoma evansi. Parasitol Int. 2022;86:102450. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.parint.2021.102450.","journal-title":"Parasitol Int"},{"key":"7725_CR8","volume-title":"Progressive control of African animal trypanosomosis\u2014tackling neglected tropical diseases through One Health","author":"FAO","year":"2026","unstructured":"FAO. Progressive control of African animal trypanosomosis \u2013 Tackling neglected tropical diseases through One Health. Rome: FAO; 2026.\u00a0https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/handle\/20.500.14283\/cd8183en."},{"key":"7725_CR9","volume-title":"Impacts of trypanosomiasis on African agriculture","author":"BM Swallow","year":"2000","unstructured":"Swallow BM. Impacts of trypanosomiasis on African agriculture. PAAT Technical and Scientific Series, No. 2. Rome: FAO; 2000.\u00a0https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/handle\/20.500.14283\/x4755en."},{"key":"7725_CR10","unstructured":"Shaw A, Hendrickx G, Gilbert M, Mattioli R, Codjia V, Dao B, et al. Mapping the benefits: a new decision tool for tsetse and trypanosomiasis interventions. Edinburgh (UK) and Rome (Italy): DFID Animal Health Programme and FAO Programme Against African Trypanosomiasis; 2006. https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/handle\/20.500.14283\/ca1386b."},{"key":"7725_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2004.03.009","volume":"122","author":"CI Mahama","year":"2004","unstructured":"Mahama CI, Desquesnes M, Dia ML, Losson B, De Deken R, Geerts S. A cross-sectional epidemiological survey of bovine trypanosomosis and its vectors in the Savelugu and West Mamprusi districts of northern Ghana. Vet Parasitol. 2004;122:1\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.vetpar.2004.03.009.","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2011.04.004","volume":"92","author":"Y Adam","year":"2012","unstructured":"Adam Y, Marcotty T, Cecchi G, Mahama C, Solano P, Bengaly Z, et al. Bovine trypanosomosis in the Upper West Region of Ghana: entomological, parasitological, and serological cross-sectional surveys. Res Vet Sci. 2012;92:462\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.rvsc.2011.04.004.","journal-title":"Res Vet Sci"},{"key":"7725_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001343","volume":"5","author":"B Bauer","year":"2011","unstructured":"Bauer B, Holzgrefe B, Mahama CI, Baumann MP, Mehlitz D, Clausen PH. Managing tsetse transmitted trypanosomosis by insecticide treated nets\u2013an affordable and sustainable method for resource poor pig farmers in Ghana. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1343. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001343.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"7725_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)31510-6","volume":"390","author":"P B\u00fcscher","year":"2017","unstructured":"B\u00fcscher P, Cecchi G, Jamonneau V, Priotto G. Human African trypanosomiasis. Lancet. 2017;390:2397\u2013409. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)31510-6.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"7725_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012111","volume":"18","author":"JR Franco","year":"2021","unstructured":"Franco JR, Priotto G, Paone M, Cecchi G, Ebeja AK, Simarro PP, et al. The elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: monitoring progress towards the 2021\u20132030 WHO road map targets. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021;18:e0012111. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012111.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"7725_CR16","first-page":"225","volume":"97","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2023","unstructured":"WHO = OMS. Human African trypanosomiasis eliminated as a public health problem in Equatorial Guinea and Ghana\u2013La trypanosomiase humaine africaine en tant que probl\u00e8me de sant\u00e9 publique \u00e9limin\u00e9e en Guin\u00e9e Equatoriale et au Ghana. Wly Epidemiol Rec. 2023;97:225\u20136.","journal-title":"Wly Epidemiol Rec"},{"key":"7725_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005585","volume":"11","author":"JR Franco","year":"2014","unstructured":"Franco JR, Cecchi G, Priotto G, Paone M, Diarra A, Grout L, et al. Monitoring the elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: update to 2014. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;11:e0005585. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005585.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"7725_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.3366\/afr.2006.0041","volume":"76","author":"JDKRS Grischow","year":"2006","unstructured":"Grischow JDKRS. Morris and tsetse eradication in the Gold Coast, 1928\u201351. Africa. 2006;76:381\u2013401.","journal-title":"Africa"},{"key":"7725_CR19","unstructured":"Mahama C, Mohammed H, Abavana M, Sidib\u00e9 I, Kon\u00e9 A, Geerts S. Tsetse and trypanosomoses in Ghana in the twentieth century: a review. 2003."},{"key":"7725_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002135","volume":"7","author":"Y Adam","year":"2013","unstructured":"Adam Y, Cecchi G, Kgori PM, Marcotty T, Mahama CI, Abavana M, et al. The sequential aerosol technique: a major component in an integrated strategy of intervention against riverine tsetse in Ghana. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002135.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"7725_CR21","first-page":"1","volume":"4","author":"ED Offori","year":"1964","unstructured":"Offori ED. Tsetse flies in Ghana. Ghana J Sci. 1964;4:1\u20138.","journal-title":"Ghana J Sci"},{"key":"7725_CR22","first-page":"25","volume-title":"Tsetse and trypanosomiasis control in Ghana","author":"N Draeger","year":"1983","unstructured":"Draeger N. Tsetse and trypanosomiasis control in Ghana. Pong Tamale: Veterinary Services Department; 1983. p. 25."},{"key":"7725_CR23","volume-title":"Tsetse flies in British West Africa","author":"TAM Nash","year":"1948","unstructured":"Nash TAM. Tsetse flies in British West Africa. London: His Majesty\u2019s Stationery Office; 1948."},{"key":"7725_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007485300034490","volume":"5","author":"JJ Simpson","year":"1914","unstructured":"Simpson JJ. Entomological Research in British West Africa: V.\u2014Gold Coast. Bull Entomol Res. 1914;5:1\u201336.","journal-title":"Bull Entomol Res"},{"key":"7725_CR25","first-page":"207","volume":"21","author":"A Challier","year":"1983","unstructured":"Challier A, Gouteux J-P, Coosemans M. La limite g\u00e9ographique entre les sous-esp\u00e8ces Glossina palpalis palpalis (Rob-Desv.) et G. palpalis gambiensis Vanderplank (Diptera: Glossinidae) en Afrique occidentale. Cahiers-ORSTOM Entomol M\u00e9d Parasitol. 1983;21:207\u201320.","journal-title":"Cahiers-ORSTOM Entomol M\u00e9d Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR26","first-page":"511","volume":"14","author":"SK Moloo","year":"1993","unstructured":"Moloo SK. The distribution of Glossina species in Africa and their natural hosts. Insect Sci Appl. 1993;14:511\u201328.","journal-title":"Insect Sci Appl"},{"key":"7725_CR27","first-page":"43","volume-title":"Improving food security in sub-Saharan Africa by supporting the progressive reduction of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis in the framework of NEPAD (Phase 2)\u2014project findings and recommendations","author":"FAO","year":"2019","unstructured":"FAO. Improving food security in sub-Saharan Africa by supporting the progressive reduction of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis in the framework of NEPAD (Phase 2) - Project findings and recommendations. Rome: FAO; 2019. p. 43.\u00a0https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/handle\/20.500.14283\/ca3271en"},{"key":"7725_CR28","first-page":"26","volume-title":"Improving food security in sub-Saharan Africa by supporting the progressive reduction of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis in the framework of New Partnership for Africa\u2019s Development\u2014project findings and recommendations","author":"FAO","year":"2016","unstructured":"FAO. Improving food security in sub-Saharan Africa by supporting the progressive reduction of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis in the framework of New Partnership for Africa\u2019s Development - Project findings and recommendations. Rome: FAO; 2016. p. 26.\u00a0https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/handle\/20.500.14283\/ca3187en"},{"key":"7725_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4922(02)02371-1","volume":"18","author":"JP Kabayo","year":"2002","unstructured":"Kabayo JP. Aiming to eliminate tsetse from Africa. Trends Parasitol. 2002;18:473\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1471-4922(02)02371-1.","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0898-y","volume":"8","author":"G Cecchi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cecchi G, Paone M, Argiles Herrero R, Vreysen MJ, Mattioli RC. Developing a continental atlas of the distribution and trypanosomal infection of tsetse flies (Glossina species). Parasit Vectors. 2015;8:284. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-015-0898-y.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7725_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-39","volume":"7","author":"G Cecchi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Cecchi G, Paone M, Feldmann U, Vreysen MJB, Diall O, Mattioli RC. Assembling a geospatial database of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis for Africa. Parasit Vectors. 2014;7:39. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1756-3305-7-39.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7725_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-022-05617-9","volume":"15","author":"T Gebre","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gebre T, Kapitano B, Beyene D, Alemu D, Beshir A, Worku Z, et al. The national atlas of tsetse flies and African animal trypanosomosis in Ethiopia. Parasit Vectors. 2022;15:491. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-022-05617-9.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7725_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3721-3","volume":"12","author":"B Diarra","year":"2019","unstructured":"Diarra B, Diarra M, Diall O, Bass B, Sanogo Y, Coulibaly E, et al. A national atlas of tsetse and African animal trypanosomosis in Mali. Parasit Vectors. 2019;12:466. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-019-3721-3.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7725_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04156-5","volume":"13","author":"NN Ngari","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ngari NN, Gamba DO, Olet PA, Zhao W, Paone M, Cecchi G. Developing a national atlas to support the progressive control of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis in Kenya. Parasit Vectors. 2020;13:286. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-020-04156-5.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7725_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-05131-4","author":"L Percoma","year":"2022","unstructured":"Percoma L, Rayaiss\u00e9 JB, Gimonneau G, Bengaly Z, Pooda SH, Pagabeleguem S, et al. An atlas to support the progressive control of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis in Burkina Faso. Parasit Vectors. 2022;15: 72. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-021-05131-4.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7725_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2017.02.005","volume":"33","author":"O Diall","year":"2017","unstructured":"Diall O, Cecchi G, Wanda G, Argiles-Herrero R, Vreysen MJB, Cattoli G, et al. Developing a progressive control pathway for African animal trypanosomosis. Trends Parasitol. 2017;33:499\u2013509. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pt.2017.02.005.","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1485-6","volume":"9","author":"SK Ahmed","year":"2016","unstructured":"Ahmed SK, Rahman AH, Hassan MA, Salih SEM, Paone M, Cecchi G. An atlas of tsetse and bovine trypanosomosis in Sudan. Parasit Vectors. 2016;9:194. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-016-1485-6.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7725_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2026.108101","volume":"278","author":"KD Coulibaly","year":"2026","unstructured":"Coulibaly KD, Bert\u00e9 D, Coulibaly B, Kallo V, Ta BTD, Djabo KA, et al. A national atlas of the distribution of tsetse flies in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire. Acta Trop. 2026;278:108101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actatropica.2026.108101.","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"7725_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-025-07086-2","volume":"18","author":"J Muyobela","year":"2025","unstructured":"Muyobela J, Chilongo K, Mukumbwali M, Sihoka C, Paone M, Cecchi G. Developing a national atlas to support the progressive control of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis in Zambia. Parasit Vectors. 2025;18:452. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-025-07086-2.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7725_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04555-8","volume":"14","author":"W Shereni","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shereni W, Neves L, Argil\u00e9s R, Nyakupinda L, Cecchi G. An atlas of tsetse and animal African trypanosomiasis in Zimbabwe. Parasit Vectors. 2021;14:50. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-020-04555-8.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"7725_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2014.03.023","volume":"28","author":"Y Adam","year":"2014","unstructured":"Adam Y, Bouyer J, Dayo GK, Mahama CI, Vreysen MJ, Cecchi G, et al. Genetic comparison of Glossina tachinoides populations in three river basins of the Upper West Region of Ghana and implications for tsetse control. Infect Genet Evol. 2014;28:588\u201395. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.meegid.2014.03.023.","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol"},{"key":"7725_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1079\/BER2004340","volume":"95","author":"CI Mahama","year":"2005","unstructured":"Mahama CI, Kone A, de la Rocque S, De Deken R, Geerts S. Prediction of the distribution of Glossina tachinoides (Diptera: Glossinidae) in the Volta basin of northern Ghana. Bull Entomol Res. 2005;95:63\u20137.","journal-title":"Bull Entomol Res"},{"key":"7725_CR43","first-page":"251","volume":"11","author":"A Challier","year":"1973","unstructured":"Challier A, Laveissiere C. Un nouveau pi\u00e8ge pour la capture des glossines (Glossina: Diptera: Muscidae). Description et essais sur le terrain [A new trap for capturing tsetse (Glossina: Diptera: Muscidae). Description and field trials]. Cahiers ORSTOM S\u00e9r Entomol M\u00e9d Parasitol. 1973;11:251\u201362.","journal-title":"Cahiers ORSTOM S\u00e9r Entomol M\u00e9d Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1079\/9780851994758.0253","volume-title":"The Trypanosomiases","author":"MC Eisler","year":"2004","unstructured":"Eisler MC, Dwinger RH, Majiwa PAO, Picozzi K, Maudlin I, Holmes PH, et al. Diagnosis and epidemiology of African animal trypanosomiasis. In: Maudlin I, Holmes PH, Miles MA, editors., et al., The Trypanosomiases. CABI Publishing; 2004. p. 253\u201367."},{"key":"7725_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(77)90110-9","volume":"71","author":"M Murray","year":"1977","unstructured":"Murray M, Murray PK, McIntyre WIM. An improved parasitological technique for the diagnosis of African trypanosomiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1977;71:325\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0035-9203(77)90110-9.","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"7725_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.2001.11813624","volume":"95","author":"M Desquesnes","year":"2001","unstructured":"Desquesnes M, Bengaly Z, Millogo L, Meme Y, Sakande H. The analysis of the cross-reactions occurring in antibody-ELISA for the detection of trypanosomes can improve identification of the parasite species involved. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2001;95:141\u201355.","journal-title":"Ann Trop Med Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR47","first-page":"267","volume":"40","author":"VM Nantulya","year":"1989","unstructured":"Nantulya VM, Lindqvist KJ. Antigen-detection enzyme immunoassays for the diagnosis of Trypanosoma vivax, T. congolense and T. brucei infections in cattle. Trop Med Parasitol. 1989;40:267\u201372.","journal-title":"Trop Med Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-706X(93)90069-N","volume":"54","author":"PK Turkson","year":"1993","unstructured":"Turkson PK. Seroepidemiological survey of cattle trypanosomiasis in coastal savanna zone of Ghana. Acta Trop. 1993;54:73\u20136.","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"7725_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2018.227","volume":"5","author":"M Gilbert","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gilbert M, Nicolas G, Cinardi G, Van Boeckel TP, Vanwambeke SO, Wint GRW, et al. Global distribution data for cattle, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens and ducks in 2010. Sci Data. 2010;5:180227. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/sdata.2018.227.","journal-title":"Sci Data"},{"key":"7725_CR50","volume-title":"The distribution of tsetse flies in Africa (3 maps)","author":"J Ford","year":"1977","unstructured":"Ford J, Katondo KM. The distribution of tsetse flies in Africa (3 maps). Organization of African Unity-Scientific and Technical Research Commission\/Cook, Hammond & Kell; 1977."},{"key":"7725_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007485399000358","volume":"89","author":"G Hendrickx","year":"2007","unstructured":"Hendrickx G, Napala A, Dao B, Batawui D, De Deken R, Vermeilen A, et al. A systematic approach to area-wide tsetse distribution and abundance maps. Bull Entomol Res. 2007;89:231\u201344. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0007485399000358.","journal-title":"Bull Entomol Res"},{"key":"7725_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1007\/s11686-020-00260-9","volume":"66","author":"PO Odeniran","year":"2021","unstructured":"Odeniran PO, Macleod ET, Ademola IO, Ohiolei JA, Majekodunmi AO, Welburn SC. Morphological, molecular identification and distribution of trypanosome-transmitting dipterans from cattle settlements in southwest Nigeria. Acta Parasitol. 2021;66:116\u201328.","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR53","first-page":"37","volume":"1","author":"C Isaac","year":"2011","unstructured":"Isaac C, Igbinosa I, Nmorsi O. The ecology of Glossina palpalis in Abraka, Nigeria. Eur J Exp Biol. 2011;1:37\u201343.","journal-title":"Eur J Exp Biol"},{"key":"7725_CR54","volume-title":"Training manual for tsetse control personnel\u2014volume 1: tsetse biology, systematics and distribution; techniques","year":"1982","unstructured":"Pollock JN, editor. Training manual for tsetse control personnel - Volume 1: Tsetse biology, systematics and distribution; techniques. Rome: FAO; 1982.\u00a0https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/handle\/20.500.14283\/p5178e"},{"key":"7725_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105328","volume":"204","author":"J de Gier","year":"2020","unstructured":"de Gier J, Cecchi G, Paone M, Dede P, Zhao W. The continental atlas of tsetse and African animal trypanosomosis in Nigeria. Acta Trop. 2020;204:105328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105328.","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"7725_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.3406\/bsef.1991.17757","volume":"96","author":"J-P Gouteux","year":"1991","unstructured":"Gouteux J-P. La rar\u00e9faction de ts\u00e9-ts\u00e9 du groupe fusca en Afrique centrale (Diptera, Glossinidae). Bull Soc Entomol Fr. 1991;96:443\u20139.","journal-title":"Bull Soc Entomol Fr"},{"key":"7725_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2016.11.017","volume":"233","author":"A Boulang\u00e9","year":"2017","unstructured":"Boulang\u00e9 A, Pillay D, Chevtzoff C, Biteau N, Come de Graca V, Rempeters L, et al. Development of a rapid antibody test for point-of-care diagnosis of animal African trypanosomosis. Vet Parasitol. 2017;233:32\u20138.","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol"},{"key":"7725_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2025.07.003","volume":"41","author":"G Cecchi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cecchi G, Ngari N, Paone M, de Gier J, Onyango S, Barreaux A, et al. Disease intelligence and modelling for progressive control of animal trypanosomosis in Africa. Trends Parasitol. 2025;41:734\u201345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pt.2025.07.003.","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"}],"container-title":["Parasites &amp; Vectors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07725-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07725-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07725-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T09:36:52Z","timestamp":1792661812000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07725-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["7725"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13071-026-07725-2","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-10495628\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1756-3305"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1756-3305","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"27 July 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 September 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 October 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"459"}}