{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T02:26:35Z","timestamp":1785551195482,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779148800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":48,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil"],"DOI":"10.1186\/s13102-026-01662-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T11:05:16Z","timestamp":1775041516000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The effects of exercise training on cardiometabolic health in adults with spinal cord injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Mousa","family":"Khalafi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahsa","family":"Ehsanifar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maryam","family":"Saresangi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maryam","family":"Aghaeinejad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara K.","family":"Rosenkranz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael E.","family":"Symonds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aref Habibi","family":"Maleki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"1662_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2013.11.002","volume":"114","author":"NA Silva","year":"2014","unstructured":"Silva NA, et al. From basics to clinical: A comprehensive review on spinal cord injury. Prog Neurobiol. 2014;114:25\u201357.","journal-title":"Prog Neurobiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"1662_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.123.064859","volume":"148","author":"T Lagu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lagu T, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Cardiovascular Risk in Individuals With Spinal Cord Injury: A Narrative Review. Circulation. 2023;148(3):268\u201377.","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"1662_CR3","unstructured":"Organization WH. Spinal cord injury. 2023. 2025-07-02. Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/spinal-cord-injury."},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0b013e31802f0247","volume":"86","author":"J Myers","year":"2007","unstructured":"Myers J, Lee M, Kiratli J. Cardiovascular disease in spinal cord injury: an overview of prevalence, risk, evaluation, and management. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;86(2):142\u201352.","journal-title":"Am J Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.46292\/sci20-00063","volume":"27","author":"PS Gordon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gordon PS, Farkas GJ, Gater DR Jr. Neurogenic obesity-induced insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus in chronic spinal cord injury. Top spinal cord injury rehabilitation. 2021;27(1):36\u201356.","journal-title":"Top spinal cord injury rehabilitation"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.46292\/sci20-00067","volume":"27","author":"DR Gater Jr","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gater DR Jr, Farkas GJ, Tiozzo E. Pathophysiology of neurogenic obesity after spinal cord injury. Top spinal cord injury rehabilitation. 2021;27(1):1\u201310.","journal-title":"Top spinal cord injury rehabilitation"},{"issue":"17","key":"1662_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2692","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11172692","volume":"11","author":"X Freyermuth-Trujillo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Freyermuth-Trujillo X, et al. Inflammation: a target for treatment in spinal cord injury. Cells. 2022;11(17):2692.","journal-title":"Cells"},{"issue":"9","key":"1662_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1811","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.21194","volume":"23","author":"CM Cirnigliaro","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cirnigliaro CM, et al. Visceral adiposity in persons with chronic spinal cord injury determined by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Obesity. 2015;23(9):1811\u20137.","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"issue":"4","key":"1662_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2001.11753584","volume":"24","author":"WA Bauman","year":"2001","unstructured":"Bauman WA, Spungen AM. Invited review carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in chronic spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 2001;24(4):266\u201377.","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"issue":"S1","key":"1662_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2006.00520.x","volume":"16","author":"BK Pedersen","year":"2006","unstructured":"Pedersen BK, Saltin B. Evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in chronic disease. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2006;16(S1):3\u201363.","journal-title":"Scand J Med Sci Sports"},{"key":"1662_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.12581","volume":"25","author":"BK Pedersen","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pedersen BK, Saltin B. Exercise as medicine\u2013evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in 26 different chronic diseases. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2015;25:1\u201372.","journal-title":"Scand J Med Sci Sports"},{"issue":"24","key":"1662_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2020-102955","volume":"54","author":"FC Bull","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bull FC, et al. World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Br J Sports Med. 2020;54(24):1451\u201362.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1662_CR13","unstructured":"Ferguson B. ACSM\u2019s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription 9th Ed. 2014. J Can Chiropr Assoc. 2014;58(3):328. PMCID: PMC4139760."},{"issue":"4","key":"1662_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-017-0017-3","volume":"56","author":"M Ginis","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ginis M. Evidence-based scientific exercise guidelines for adults with spinal cord injury: an update and a new guideline. Spinal Cord. 2018;56(4):308\u201321.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.23736\/S1973-9087.16.03804-1","volume":"53","author":"H Akkurt","year":"2017","unstructured":"Akkurt H, et al. The effects of upper extremity aerobic exercise in patients with spinal cord injury: a randomized controlled study. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med. 2017;53(2):219\u201327.","journal-title":"Eur J Phys Rehabil Med"},{"key":"1662_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alharbi A, Li J, Womack E, Farrow M, Yarar-Fisher C. The Effect of Lower Limb Combined Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation on Skeletal Muscle Signaling for Glucose Utilization, Myofiber Distribution, and Metabolic Function after Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023;20(20):6958. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20206958. PMID: 37887696; PMCID: PMC10606374.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20206958"},{"issue":"8","key":"1662_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1113\/EP091803","volume":"109","author":"M Farrow","year":"2024","unstructured":"Farrow M, et al. Effect of high-intensity interval training on cardiometabolic component risks in persons with paraplegia: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Exp Physiol. 2024;109(8):1253\u201366.","journal-title":"Exp Physiol"},{"key":"1662_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gorgey AS, Khalil RE, Carter W, Ballance B, Gill R, Khan R, Goetz L, Lavis T, Sima AP, Adler RA. Effects of two different paradigms of electrical stimulation exercise on cardio-metabolic risk factors after spinal cord injury. A randomized clinical trial. Front Neurol. 2023;14:1254760. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fneur.2023.1254760. PMID: 37808500; PMCID: PMC10556465.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1254760"},{"issue":"6","key":"1662_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2016.1157970","volume":"39","author":"AS Gorgey","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gorgey AS, et al. Longitudinal changes in body composition and metabolic profile between exercise clinical trials in men with chronic spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 2016;39(6):699\u2013712.","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"1662_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-023-05146-y","volume":"123","author":"RK Hansen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hansen RK, et al. Rowing exercise increases cardiorespiratory fitness and brachial artery diameter but not traditional cardiometabolic risk factors in spinal cord-injured humans. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2023;123(6):1241\u201355.","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol"},{"issue":"11","key":"1662_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2015.07.010","volume":"96","author":"DI Kim","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kim DI et al. Effects of a 6-week indoor hand-bike exercise program on health and fitness levels in people with spinal cord injury: a randomized controlled trial study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2015;96(11):2033-40.e1.","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"5","key":"1662_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-019-05885-7","volume":"28","author":"DI Kim","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kim DI, et al. A pilot randomized controlled trial of 6-week combined exercise program on fasting insulin and fitness levels in individuals with spinal cord injury. Eur Spine J. 2019;28(5):1082\u201391.","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dhjo.2018.07.003","volume":"12","author":"M Mogharnasi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mogharnasi M, et al. Effects of upper-body resistance exercise training on serum nesfatin-1 level, insulin resistance, and body composition in obese paraplegic men. Disabil Health J. 2019;12(1):29\u201334.","journal-title":"Disabil Health J"},{"issue":"12","key":"1662_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2469","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001390","volume":"49","author":"TE Nightingale","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nightingale TE, et al. Impact of Exercise on Cardiometabolic Component Risks in Spinal Cord-injured Humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017;49(12):2469\u201377.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2013.08.246","volume":"95","author":"M Rosety-Rodriguez","year":"2014","unstructured":"Rosety-Rodriguez M, et al. Low-grade systemic inflammation and leptin levels were improved by arm cranking exercise in adults with chronic spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2014;95(2):297\u2013302.","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"3","key":"1662_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0247576","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0247576","volume":"16","author":"R Solinsky","year":"2021","unstructured":"Solinsky R, et al. High-intensity, whole-body exercise improves blood pressure control in individuals with spinal cord injury: A prospective randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(3):e0247576.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"9","key":"1662_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1566","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2015.05.019","volume":"96","author":"JO de Totosy","year":"2015","unstructured":"de Totosy JO, et al. Following the Physical Activity Guidelines for Adults With Spinal Cord Injury for 16 Weeks Does Not Improve Vascular Health: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2015;96(9):1566\u201375.","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"3","key":"1662_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1113\/EP090785","volume":"108","author":"BA Yates","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yates BA, et al. Improved pulmonary function is associated with reduced inflammation after hybrid whole-body exercise training in persons with spinal cord injury. Exp Physiol. 2023;108(3):353\u201360.","journal-title":"Exp Physiol"},{"key":"1662_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solinsky R, et al. Cardiometabolic effects of high-intensity hybrid functional electrical stimulation exercise after spinal cord injury. PM&R; 2021;13:937\u201344. 9.","DOI":"10.1002\/pmrj.12507"},{"issue":"8","key":"1662_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2016.12.008","volume":"98","author":"TE Nightingale","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nightingale TE, et al. Exercise Guidelines to Promote Cardiometabolic Health in Spinal Cord Injured Humans: Time to Raise the Intensity? Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2017;98(8):1693\u2013704.","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"11","key":"1662_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1004082","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1004082","volume":"20","author":"DD Hodgkiss","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hodgkiss DD, et al. Exercise and aerobic capacity in individuals with spinal cord injury: A systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression. PLoS Med. 2023;20(11):e1004082.","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"1662_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-022-00859-4","volume":"37","author":"OA Itodo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Itodo OA, et al. Physical activity and cardiometabolic risk factors in individuals with spinal cord injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol. 2022;37(4):335\u201365.","journal-title":"Eur J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"1662_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1177\/0269215507073385","volume":"21","author":"L Valent","year":"2007","unstructured":"Valent L, et al. The effects of upper body exercise on the physical capacity of people with a spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Clin Rehabil. 2007;21(4):315\u201330.","journal-title":"Clin Rehabil"},{"issue":"12","key":"1662_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2020.04.020","volume":"101","author":"M Farrow","year":"2020","unstructured":"Farrow M, et al. Effect of Exercise on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Adults With Chronic Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2020;101(12):2177\u2013205.","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"19","key":"1662_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70073","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.70073","volume":"12","author":"S Hoekstra","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hoekstra S, et al. The effect of home-based neuromuscular electrical stimulation\u2010resistance training and protein supplementation on lean mass in persons with spinal cord injury: A pilot study. Physiological Rep. 2024;12(19):e70073.","journal-title":"Physiological Rep"},{"issue":"9","key":"1662_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1080\/09638288.2022.2063420","volume":"45","author":"JM Fenton","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fenton JM, et al. Protocols aiming to increase muscle mass in persons with motor complete spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Disabil Rehabil. 2023;45(9):1433\u201343.","journal-title":"Disabil Rehabil"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-021-00882-8","volume":"18","author":"JW van der Scheer","year":"2021","unstructured":"van der Scheer JW, et al. Functional electrical stimulation cycling exercise after spinal cord injury: a systematic review of health and fitness-related outcomes. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2021;18(1):99.","journal-title":"J Neuroeng Rehabil"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2288-14-135","volume":"14","author":"X Wan","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wan X, et al. Estimating the sample mean and standard deviation from the sample size, median, range and\/or interquartile range. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2014;14(1):135.","journal-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2288-5-13","volume":"5","author":"SP Hozo","year":"2005","unstructured":"Hozo SP, Djulbegovic B, Hozo I. Estimating the mean and variance from the median, range, and the size of a sample. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2005;5(1):13.","journal-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol"},{"key":"1662_CR40","unstructured":"Chandler, Jacqueline, et al. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. Hoboken: Wiley; 2019. p. 14651858. \u200f"},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/S0004-9514(09)70043-1","volume":"55","author":"NA de Morton","year":"2009","unstructured":"de Morton NA. The PEDro scale is a valid measure of the methodological quality of clinical trials: a demographic study. Aust J Physiother. 2009;55(2):129\u201333.","journal-title":"Aust J Physiother"},{"key":"1662_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40779-020-00238-8","volume":"7","author":"L-L Ma","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ma L-L, et al. Methodological quality (risk of bias) assessment tools for primary and secondary medical studies: what are they and which is better? Military Med Res. 2020;7:1\u201311.","journal-title":"Military Med Res"},{"key":"1662_CR43","unstructured":"Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, et al., editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.5. Cochrane; 2024. Available from https:\/\/www.cochrane.org\/handbook. Updated August 2024."},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x","volume":"56","author":"S Duval","year":"2000","unstructured":"Duval S, Tweedie R. Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics. 2000;56(2):455\u201363.","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"issue":"5","key":"1662_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2014.237","volume":"53","author":"AJT Bakkum","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bakkum AJT, et al. Effects of hybrid cycling versus handcycling on wheelchair-specific fitness and physical activity in people with long-term spinal cord injury: A 16-week randomized controlled trial. Spinal Cord. 2015;53(5):395\u2013401.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"3","key":"1662_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2017.1412562","volume":"42","author":"JJ Bresnahan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bresnahan JJ, et al. Arm crank ergometry improves cardiovascular disease risk factors and community mobility independent of body composition in high motor complete spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 2019;42(3):272\u201380.","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"key":"1662_CR47","first-page":"473","volume":"68","author":"L Cugusi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cugusi L, et al. Effects of an adapted physical training on functional status, body composition and quality of life in persons with spinal cord injury paraplegia: A pilot study. Med Sport. 2015;68:473\u201385.","journal-title":"Med Sport"},{"issue":"5","key":"1662_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.25393","volume":"55","author":"ML Erickson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Erickson ML, et al. Endurance neuromuscular electrical stimulation training improves skeletal muscle oxidative capacity in individuals with motor-complete spinal cord injury. Muscle Nerve. 2017;55(5):669\u201375.","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.46292\/sci20-00065","volume":"27","author":"GJ Farkas","year":"2021","unstructured":"Farkas GJ, et al. Energy expenditure, cardiorespiratory fitness, and body composition following arm cycling or functional electrical stimulation exercises in spinal cord injury: a 16-week randomized controlled trial. Top spinal cord injury rehabilitation. 2021;27(1):121\u201334.","journal-title":"Top spinal cord injury rehabilitation"},{"issue":"3","key":"1662_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1310\/sci19-00042","volume":"25","author":"K Graham","year":"2019","unstructured":"Graham K, et al. Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training Versus Moderate-Intensity Training on Cardiometabolic Health Markers in Individuals With Spinal Cord Injury: A Pilot Study. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil. 2019;25(3):248\u201359.","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"issue":"12","key":"1662_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.sc.3101534","volume":"41","author":"P De Groot","year":"2003","unstructured":"De Groot P, et al. Effect of training intensity on physical capacity, lipid profile and insulin sensitivity in early rehabilitation of spinal cord injured individuals. Spinal Cord. 2003;41(12):673\u20139.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"11","key":"1662_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2017.02.007","volume":"98","author":"M Horiuchi","year":"2017","unstructured":"Horiuchi M, Okita K. Arm-cranking exercise training reduces plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 in people with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2017;98(11):2174\u201380.","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-198902000-00004","volume":"21","author":"SP Hooker","year":"1989","unstructured":"Hooker SP, Wells CL. Effects of low-and moderate-intensity training in spinal cord-injured persons. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989;21(1):18\u201322.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"issue":"3","key":"1662_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.5606\/tftrd.2021.6533","volume":"67","author":"FN Kesikta\u015f","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kesikta\u015f FN, et al. Comparison of the functional and cardiovascular effects of home-based versus supervised hospital circuit training exercises in male wheelchair users with chronic paraplegia. Turkish J Phys Med rehabilitation. 2021;67(3):275.","journal-title":"Turkish J Phys Med rehabilitation"},{"issue":"16","key":"1662_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13813","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.13813","volume":"6","author":"J Li","year":"2018","unstructured":"Li J, et al. A high-protein diet or combination exercise training to improve metabolic health in individuals with long-standing spinal cord injury: a pilot randomized study. Physiol Rep. 2018;6(16):e13813.","journal-title":"Physiol Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2001.11753548","volume":"24","author":"MS Nash","year":"2001","unstructured":"Nash MS, et al. Circuit resistance training improves the atherogenic lipid profiles of persons with chronic paraplegia. J Spinal Cord Med. 2001;24(1):2\u20139.","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"issue":"11","key":"1662_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2013.06.016","volume":"94","author":"TE Ryan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ryan TE, et al. Electrically induced resistance training in individuals with motor complete spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2013;94(11):2166\u201373.","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"5","key":"1662_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1007\/s11999-016-5133-4","volume":"475","author":"TT Roberts","year":"2017","unstructured":"Roberts TT, Leonard GR, Cepela DJ. Classifications in brief: American spinal injury association (ASIA) impairment scale. Clin Orthop Relat Research\u00ae. 2017;475(5):1499\u2013504.","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Research\u00ae"},{"key":"1662_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpc.2025.100938","volume":"21","author":"S-K Kao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kao S-K, Yu Y-T, Tsai M-H. Risk of adverse cardiovascular events following spinal cord injury in patients with osteoporosis: Real-world evidence. Am J Prev Cardiol. 2025;21:100938.","journal-title":"Am J Prev Cardiol"},{"issue":"9","key":"1662_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2872","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14092872","volume":"14","author":"GJ Farkas","year":"2025","unstructured":"Farkas GJ, et al. Cardiometabolic Risk in Chronic Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis and Temporal and Geographical Trends. J Clin Med. 2025;14(9):2872.","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR61","first-page":"14","volume":"2","author":"JC Furlan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Furlan JC. Effects on Outcomes of Hyperglycemia in the Hyperacute Stage after Acute Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury. Neurotrauma Rep. 2021;2(1):14\u201324.","journal-title":"Neurotrauma Rep"},{"issue":"5","key":"1662_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R203","DOI":"10.1186\/cc11812","volume":"16","author":"AH Kramer","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kramer AH, Roberts DJ, Zygun DA. Optimal glycemic control in neurocritical care patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2012;16(5):R203.","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"issue":"4","key":"1662_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1310\/sci2404-379","volume":"24","author":"MS Nash","year":"2018","unstructured":"Nash MS, et al. Identification and Management of Cardiometabolic Risk after Spinal Cord Injury: Clinical Practice Guideline for Health Care Providers. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil. 2018;24(4):379\u2013423.","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S1047-9651(18)30150-5","volume":"11","author":"WA Bauman","year":"2000","unstructured":"Bauman WA, Spungen AM. Metabolic changes in persons after spinal cord injury. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2000;11(1):109\u201340.","journal-title":"Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am"},{"issue":"8","key":"1662_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-023-02298-8","volume":"47","author":"F Di Giulio","year":"2024","unstructured":"Di Giulio F, et al. Correlates of metabolic syndrome in people with chronic spinal cord injury. J Endocrinol Invest. 2024;47(8):2097\u2013105.","journal-title":"J Endocrinol Invest"},{"issue":"4","key":"1662_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2001.11753584","volume":"24","author":"WA Bauman","year":"2001","unstructured":"Bauman WA, Spungen AM. Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in chronic spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 2001;24(4):266\u201377.","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"issue":"7","key":"1662_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-021-00704-7","volume":"60","author":"S Tallqvist","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tallqvist S, et al. Prevalence of comorbidities and secondary health conditions among the Finnish population with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2022;60(7):618\u201327.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"10","key":"1662_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2015.08.162","volume":"96","author":"DG Tate","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tate DG, et al. Comorbidities and Age Related Conditions among Persons with Spinal Cord Injury\/Disease (SCI\/D). Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2015;96(10):e49.","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"3","key":"1662_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.76.3.515","volume":"76","author":"HA Tyroler","year":"1987","unstructured":"Tyroler HA. Review of lipid-lowering clinical trials in relation to observational epidemiologic studies. Circulation. 1987;76(3):515\u201322.","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"issue":"16","key":"1662_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1308","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.041998","volume":"140","author":"NA Marston","year":"2019","unstructured":"Marston NA, et al. Association between triglyceride lowering and reduction of cardiovascular risk across multiple lipid-lowering therapeutic classes: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomized controlled trials. Circulation. 2019;140(16):1308\u201317.","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR71","first-page":"133","volume":"2","author":"G Bravo","year":"2004","unstructured":"Bravo G, et al. Cardiovascular alterations after spinal cord injury: an overview. Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents. 2004;2(2):133\u201348.","journal-title":"Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents"},{"issue":"5","key":"1662_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2016.1228286","volume":"40","author":"E Koyuncu","year":"2017","unstructured":"Koyuncu E, et al. The analysis of serum lipid levels in patients with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 2017;40(5):567\u201372.","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"key":"1662_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"p847462","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/847462","volume":"2012","author":"R Vichiansiri","year":"2012","unstructured":"Vichiansiri R, et al. The prevalence of dyslipidemia in patients with spinal cord lesion in Thailand. Cholesterol. 2012;2012:p847462.","journal-title":"Cholesterol"},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1038\/ajh.2010.146","volume":"24","author":"LJ Benvenuto","year":"2011","unstructured":"Benvenuto LJ, Krakoff LR. Morbidity and mortality of orthostatic hypotension: implications for management of cardiovascular disease. Am J Hypertens. 2011;24(2):135\u201344.","journal-title":"Am J Hypertens"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00023.2004","volume":"86","author":"B Kiens","year":"2006","unstructured":"Kiens B. Skeletal muscle lipid metabolism in exercise and insulin resistance. Physiol Rev. 2006;86(1):205\u201343.","journal-title":"Physiol Rev"},{"key":"1662_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Liang MT, Quezada L, Lau WJ, Sokmen B, Spalding TW. Effect of short-term upper-body resistance training on muscular strength, bone metabolic markers, and BMD in premenopausal women. Open Access J Sports Med. 2012;3:201\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/OAJSM.S33399. PMID: 24198603; PMCID: PMC3781915.","DOI":"10.2147\/OAJSM.S33399"},{"issue":"24","key":"1662_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1927","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2015.3903","volume":"32","author":"AA Phillips","year":"2015","unstructured":"Phillips AA, Krassioukov AV. Contemporary Cardiovascular Concerns after Spinal Cord Injury: Mechanisms, Maladaptations, and Management. J Neurotrauma. 2015;32(24):1927\u201342.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.sc.3100718","volume":"37","author":"AV Krassioukov","year":"1999","unstructured":"Krassioukov AV, et al. The changes in human spinal sympathetic preganglionic neurons after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 1999;37(1):6\u201313.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"6","key":"1662_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2014.35","volume":"52","author":"BG Wallin","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wallin BG, et al. Sympathetic single axonal discharge after spinal cord injury in humans: activity at rest and after bladder stimulation. Spinal Cord. 2014;52(6):434\u20138.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"1662_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(05)52015-6","volume":"152","author":"CJ Mathias","year":"2006","unstructured":"Mathias CJ. Orthostatic hypotension and paroxysmal hypertension in humans with high spinal cord injury. Prog Brain Res. 2006;152:231\u201343.","journal-title":"Prog Brain Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"1662_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2016.1236161","volume":"40","author":"DL Dance","year":"2017","unstructured":"Dance DL, et al. Exploring daily blood pressure fluctuations and cardiovascular risk among individuals with motor complete spinal cord injury: a pilot study. J Spinal Cord Med. 2017;40(4):405\u201314.","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"1662_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-019-0316-y","volume":"57","author":"KD Currie","year":"2019","unstructured":"Currie KD, et al. Associations between arterial stiffness and blood pressure fluctuations after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2019;57(12):1057\u201363.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"1662_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Phillips AA, Krassioukov AV. Cardiovascular Dysfunction Following Spinal Cord Injury. In: Weidner N, Rupp R, Tansey K, editors. Neurological Aspects of Spinal Cord Injury. Cham: Springer; 2017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-46293-6_14.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-46293-6_14"},{"key":"1662_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cifuentes M, Verdejo HE, Castro PF, Corvalan AH, Ferreccio C, Quest AFG, Kogan MJ, Lavandero S. Low-Grade Chronic Inflammation: a Shared Mechanism for Chronic Diseases. Physiology (Bethesda). 2025;40(1):0. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/physiol.00021.2024. Epub\u00a0 30 Jul 2024. PMID: 39078396.","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.00021.2024"},{"issue":"21","key":"1662_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2007.02.052","volume":"49","author":"PM Ridker","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ridker PM. C-reactive protein and the prediction of cardiovascular events among those at intermediate risk: moving an inflammatory hypothesis toward consensus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49(21):2129\u201338.","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"1662_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00164.2004","volume":"98","author":"AMW Petersen","year":"2005","unstructured":"Petersen AMW, Pedersen BK. The anti-inflammatory effect of exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2005;98(4):1154\u201362.","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"1662_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamcr.2011.01.034","volume":"1813","author":"J Scheller","year":"2011","unstructured":"Scheller J, et al. The pro- and anti-inflammatory properties of the cytokine interleukin-6. Biochim et Biophys Acta (BBA) - Mol Cell Res. 2011;1813(5):878\u201388.","journal-title":"Biochim et Biophys Acta (BBA) - Mol Cell Res"},{"key":"1662_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Freyermuth-Trujillo X, Segura-Uribe JJ, Salgado-Ceballos H, Orozco-Barrios CE, Coyoy-Salgado A. Inflammation: A Target for Treatment in Spinal Cord Injury. Cells. 2022;11(17):2692. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells11172692. PMID: 36078099; PMCID: PMC9454769.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11172692"},{"key":"1662_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2016.00098","volume":"10","author":"MA Anwar","year":"2016","unstructured":"Anwar MA, Al Shehabi TS, Eid AH. Inflammogenesis of Secondary Spinal Cord Injury. Front Cell Neurosci. 2016;10:98.","journal-title":"Front Cell Neurosci"},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1089\/08977150360547116","volume":"20","author":"TY Yune","year":"2003","unstructured":"Yune TY, et al. Increased production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha induces apoptosis after traumatic spinal cord injury in rats. J Neurotrauma. 2003;20(2):207\u201319.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"10","key":"1662_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"a016295","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a016295","volume":"6","author":"T Tanaka","year":"2014","unstructured":"Tanaka T, Narazaki M, Kishimoto T. IL-6 in inflammation, immunity, and disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2014;6(10):a016295.","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol"},{"key":"1662_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00754","volume":"9","author":"NR Sproston","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sproston NR, Ashworth JJ. Role of C-Reactive Protein at Sites of Inflammation and Infection. Front Immunol. 2018;9:754.","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"issue":"11","key":"1662_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1016\/S0929-6646(08)60062-5","volume":"106","author":"TD Wang","year":"2007","unstructured":"Wang TD, et al. Circulating levels of markers of inflammation and endothelial activation are increased in men with chronic spinal cord injury. J Formos Med Assoc. 2007;106(11):919\u201328.","journal-title":"J Formos Med Assoc"},{"issue":"5","key":"1662_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-022-09742-9","volume":"23","author":"G Boehl","year":"2022","unstructured":"Boehl G, et al. Endocrinological and inflammatory markers in individuals with spinal cord injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2022;23(5):1035\u201350.","journal-title":"Rev Endocr Metab Disord"},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2013.11.028","volume":"232","author":"O Gilbert","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gilbert O, et al. Serum lipid concentrations among persons with spinal cord injury - a systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. Atherosclerosis. 2014;232(2):305\u201312.","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"issue":"6","key":"1662_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2016.173","volume":"55","author":"LY Garcia-Arguello","year":"2017","unstructured":"Garcia-Arguello LY, et al. Infections in the spinal cord-injured population: a systematic review. Spinal Cord. 2017;55(6):526\u201334.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2017.1423266","volume":"42","author":"DR Gater Jr","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gater DR Jr., et al. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in veterans with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 2019;42(1):86\u201393.","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"key":"1662_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2024.114524","volume":"278","author":"M Khalafi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Khalafi M, et al. The effects of exercise training on inflammatory markers in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Physiol Behav. 2024;278:114524.","journal-title":"Physiol Behav"},{"issue":"2","key":"1662_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2008.07.038","volume":"203","author":"G Zuliani","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zuliani G, et al. Elevated C-reactive protein levels and metabolic syndrome in the elderly: The role of central obesity data from the InChianti study. Atherosclerosis. 2009;203(2):626\u201332.","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"issue":"1","key":"1662_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.167.1.31","volume":"167","author":"E Selvin","year":"2007","unstructured":"Selvin E, Paynter NP, Erlinger TP. The effect of weight loss on C-reactive protein: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(1):31\u20139.","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"1662_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.108.097188","volume":"138","author":"MJ Puglisi","year":"2008","unstructured":"Puglisi MJ, Fernandez ML. Modulation of C-Reactive Protein, Tumor Necrosis Factor-\u03b1, and Adiponectin by Diet, Exercise, and Weight Loss1. J Nutr. 2008;138(12):2293\u20136.","journal-title":"J Nutr"}],"container-title":["BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s13102-026-01662-4","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13102-026-01662-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s13102-026-01662-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T04:31:17Z","timestamp":1779165077000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s13102-026-01662-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1662"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13102-026-01662-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["2052-1847"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2052-1847","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 August 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 March 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 April 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"238"}}