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We have generated rat models using similar modifications of the testis-determining gene\n                      <jats:italic>Sry<\/jats:italic>\n                      , to produce XX and XY rats with the same type of gonad, as well as XO, XXY and XYY rats with varying gonads. The models permit discovery of novel sex-chromosome effects (XX vs. XY) that contribute to sex differences in any rat phenotype, and test for effects of different numbers of X or Y chromosomes.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      XY rats were created with an autosomal transgene of\n                      <jats:italic>Sry<\/jats:italic>\n                      , producing XX and XY progeny with testes. In other rats, CRISPR-Cas9 technology was used to remove Y chromosome factors that initiate testis differentiation, producing fertile XY gonadal females. Interbreeding of these lines produced rats with interesting combinations of sex chromosomes and gonads: XO, XX, XY, XXY rats with ovaries; and XO, XX, XY, XXY, and XYY rats with testes. These groups can be compared to detect sex differences caused by sex-chromosome complement (XX vs. XY) and\/or by gonadal hormones (rats with testes vs. ovaries). Other comparisons detect the effects of X or Y chromosome number (in gonadal females: XO vs. XX, XX vs. XXY, XO vs. XY, XY vs. XXY; in gonadal males: XY vs. XXY, XY vs. XYY; XX vs. XXY, XO vs. XX, XO vs. XY).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We measured numerous phenotypes to characterize these models, including gonadal histology, breeding performance, anogenital distance, levels of reproductive hormones, body and organ weights, and central nervous system sexual dimorphisms. Serum testosterone levels were comparable in adult XX and XY gonadal males. Phenotypes previously known to be sexually differentiated by the action of gonadal hormones were found to be similar in XX and XY rats with the same type of gonad, suggesting that XX and XY rats with the same type of gonad have comparable levels of gonadal hormones at various stages of development.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The results establish powerful new models to discriminate sex-chromosome and gonadal hormone effects that cause sex differences in rat physiology and disease.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13293-026-00837-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,21]],"date-time":"2026-02-21T08:47:06Z","timestamp":1771663626000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Sry-modified laboratory rat lines to study sex-chromosome effects\u00a0underlying sex differences in physiology and disease:\u00a0Four Core Genotypes and more"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Arthur P.","family":"Arnold","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuqi","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael N.","family":"Grzybowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janelle M.","family":"Ryan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dale R.","family":"Sengelaub","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tara","family":"Mohanroy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"V. 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