{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T16:57:03Z","timestamp":1790873823002,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772755200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775692800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":34,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100030902","name":"Martin-Luther-Universit\u00e4t Halle-Wittenberg","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100030902","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Eur J Med Res"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Following primary spinal cord injury (SCI), spinal neuronal tissues and their surrounding tissues undergo pathological degeneration, known as secondary SCI. Secondary SCI is a complex process involving progressive neurodegeneration caused by ischemia, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Current strategies for managing secondary SCI are debated, and evidence remains limited. This narrative review discusses the latest evidence on pharmacological approaches to the treatment of the acute phase of secondary SCI. Erythropoietin (EPO) significantly enhances outcomes in secondary SCI, resulting in higher motor scores and a reduction in the American Spinal Cord Injury Association Impairment (ASIA) scale. Although methylprednisolone is one of the most commonly used drugs in secondary SCI, its effectiveness continues to be debated. Topical application of the rho-GTPases inhibitor VX-210 at the injury site showed no efficacy in secondary SCI. Similar results were observed with levetiracetam. Monosialotetrahexosylganglioside (GM1) has been linked to improvements in neurological and motor recovery. Riluzole demonstrated higher and better motor and sensory scores and improved impairment grading. The use of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) enhanced motor and disability scores, promoted motor recovery, and was associated with fewer therapy-related complications. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) aids in motor function recovery, particularly in the lower limbs. Future progress in the pharmacological management of the acute phase of secondary spinal cord injury will depend on methodologically robust clinical trials with improved patient stratification, standardised therapeutic windows, and clinically meaningful outcome measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40001-026-04005-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T01:56:02Z","timestamp":1772762162000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Pharmacotherapy in the acute phase of secondary spinal cord injury: an updated narrative review"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Filippo","family":"Migliorini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luise","family":"Sch\u00e4fer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Bell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simeone","family":"Francesco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federico","family":"Cocconi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicola","family":"Maffulli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"4005_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-019-0984-1","volume":"19","author":"M Karsy","year":"2019","unstructured":"Karsy M, Hawryluk G. Modern medical management of spinal cord injury. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2019;19(9):65.","journal-title":"Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep"},{"key":"4005_CR2","volume":"6","author":"CH Merritt","year":"2019","unstructured":"Merritt CH, Taylor MA, Yelton CJ, et al. Economic impact of traumatic spinal cord injuries in the United States. Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2019;6:9.","journal-title":"Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm"},{"issue":"5","key":"4005_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.suc.2017.06.008","volume":"97","author":"MJ Eckert","year":"2017","unstructured":"Eckert MJ, Martin MJ. Trauma: spinal cord injury. Surg Clin North Am. 2017;97(5):1031\u201345.","journal-title":"Surg Clin North Am"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1080\/00207454.2021.1912040","volume":"133","author":"J Kaur","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kaur J, Mojumdar A. A mechanistic overview of spinal cord injury, oxidative DNA damage repair and neuroprotective therapies. Int J Neurosci. 2023;133(3):307\u201321.","journal-title":"Int J Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2018.02.064","volume":"200","author":"CS Elliott","year":"2018","unstructured":"Elliott CS, Dallas KB, Zlatev D, et al. Volitional voiding of the bladder after spinal cord injury: validation of bilateral lower extremity motor function as a key predictor. J Urol. 2018;200(1):154\u201360.","journal-title":"J Urol"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmr.2014.04.005","volume":"25","author":"DS Kushner","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kushner DS, Alvarez G. Dual diagnosis: traumatic brain injury with spinal cord injury. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2014;25(3):681-96,ix-x.","journal-title":"Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am."},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2025.2470326","volume":"25","author":"F Migliorini","year":"2025","unstructured":"Migliorini F, Pilone M, Eschweiler J, et al. Therapeutic strategies that modulate the acute phase of secondary spinal cord injury scarring and inflammation and improve injury outcomes. Expert Rev Neurother. 2025;25(4):477\u201390.","journal-title":"Expert Rev Neurother"},{"key":"4005_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jor.2025.11.011","volume":"72","author":"F Migliorini","year":"2026","unstructured":"Migliorini F, Schafer L, Simeone F, et al. Therapeutic potential of melatonin in musculoskeletal medicine. J Orthop. 2026;72:117\u201323.","journal-title":"J Orthop"},{"key":"4005_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bas.2025.104326","volume":"5","author":"ND Trung","year":"2025","unstructured":"Trung ND, Su HX, Chinh DT, et al. Impact of early decompression surgery and injury characteristics on neurological recovery following traumatic cervical spinal cord injury. Brain and Spine. 2025;5:104326.","journal-title":"Brain and Spine"},{"issue":"5557","key":"4005_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1067840","volume":"295","author":"ME Schwab","year":"2002","unstructured":"Schwab ME. Repairing the injured spinal cord. Science. 2002;295(5557):1029\u201331.","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17018","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.18","volume":"27","author":"CS Ahuja","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ahuja CS, Wilson JR, Nori S, et al. Traumatic spinal cord injury. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017;27(3):17018.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Primers"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1093\/bmb\/ldae009","volume":"151","author":"F Migliorini","year":"2024","unstructured":"Migliorini F, Cocconi F, Schafer L, et al. Pharmacological management of secondary chronic spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Br Med Bull. 2024;151(1):49\u201368.","journal-title":"Br Med Bull"},{"issue":"13","key":"4005_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1793","DOI":"10.1080\/14656566.2021.1918674","volume":"22","author":"A Baroncini","year":"2021","unstructured":"Baroncini A, Maffulli N, Eschweiler J, et al. Pharmacological management of secondary spinal cord injury. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2021;22(13):1793\u2013800.","journal-title":"Expert Opin Pharmacother"},{"issue":"CN_suppl_1","key":"4005_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1093\/neuros\/nyx217","volume":"64","author":"S Nori","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nori S, Ahuja CS, Fehlings MG. Translational advances in the management of acute spinal cord injury: what is new? What is hot? Neurosurgery. 2017;64(CN_suppl_1):119\u201328.","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4055\/cios.2017.9.1.1","volume":"9","author":"YH Kim","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kim YH, Ha KY, Kim SI. Spinal cord injury and related clinical trials. Clin Orthop Surg. 2017;9(1):1\u20139.","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Surg"},{"issue":"17","key":"4005_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2692","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11172692","volume":"11","author":"X Freyermuth-Trujillo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Freyermuth-Trujillo X, Segura-Uribe JJ, Salgado-Ceballos H, et al. Inflammation: a target for treatment in spinal cord injury. Cells. 2022;11(17):2692.","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"4005_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2021.07.148","volume":"155","author":"X Liu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Liu X, Zhang Y, Wang Y, et al. Inflammatory response to spinal cord injury and its treatment. World Neurosurg. 2021;155:19\u201331.","journal-title":"World Neurosurg"},{"issue":"20","key":"4005_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199005173222001","volume":"322","author":"MB Bracken","year":"1990","unstructured":"Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal-cord injury. Results of the Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. N Engl J Med. 1990;322(20):1405\u201311.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"4005_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00011","volume":"9","author":"S Hextrum","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hextrum S, Bennett S. A critical examination of subgroup analyses: the National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Studies and beyond. Front Neurol. 2018;9:11.","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"4005_CR20","first-page":"14","volume":"20","author":"H Huang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Huang H, Young W, Skaper S, et al. Clinical neurorestorative therapeutic guidelines for spinal cord injury (IANR\/CANR version 2019). J Orthop Transl. 2020;20:14\u201324.","journal-title":"J Orthop Transl"},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1097\/00006123-199104000-00029","volume":"28","author":"MJ Rosner","year":"1991","unstructured":"Rosner MJ. National acute spinal cord injury study of methylprednisolone or naloxone. Neurosurgery. 1991;28(4):628\u20139.","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"issue":"12","key":"4005_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.sc.3100927","volume":"37","author":"MJ Shepard","year":"1999","unstructured":"Shepard MJ, Bracken MB. Magnetic resonance imaging and neurological recovery in acute spinal cord injury: observations from the National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study 3. Spinal Cord. 1999;37(12):833\u20137.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"4005_CR23","first-page":"S397","volume":"9","author":"W Young","year":"1992","unstructured":"Young W, Bracken MB. The second national acute spinal cord injury study. J Neurotrauma. 1992;9(Suppl 1):S397-405.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"4005_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/2152-7806.163452","volume":"6","author":"V Cheung","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cheung V, Hoshide R, Bansal V, et al. Methylprednisolone in the management of spinal cord injuries: lessons from randomized, controlled trials. Surg Neurol Int. 2015;6:142.","journal-title":"Surg Neurol Int"},{"issue":"9","key":"4005_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e841","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000007998","volume":"93","author":"Z Liu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Liu Z, Yang Y, He L, et al. High-dose methylprednisolone for acute traumatic spinal cord injury: a meta-analysis. Neurology. 2019;93(9):e841\u201350.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"4005_CR26","unstructured":"Spinal injury: assessment and initial management. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence: Guidelines. London2016."},{"issue":"CN_suppl_1","key":"4005_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1227\/01.neu.0000430319.32247.7f","volume":"60","author":"BC Walters","year":"2013","unstructured":"Walters BC, Hadley MN, Hurlbert RJ, et al. Guidelines for the management of acute cervical spine and spinal cord injuries: 2013 update. Neurosurgery. 2013;60(CN_suppl_1):82\u201391.","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-020-00604-2","volume":"59","author":"B Ganjeifar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ganjeifar B, Rezaee H, Keykhosravi E, et al. The effect of combination therapy with erythropoietin and methylprednisolone in patients with traumatic cervical spinal cord injury: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Spinal Cord. 2021;59(3):347\u201353.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2015.1114224","volume":"39","author":"B Aminmansour","year":"2016","unstructured":"Aminmansour B, Asnaashari A, Rezvani M, et al. Effects of progesterone and vitamin D on outcome of patients with acute traumatic spinal cord injury; a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study. J Spinal Cord Med. 2016;39(3):272\u201380.","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"issue":"20","key":"4005_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1997.03540440031029","volume":"277","author":"MB Bracken","year":"1997","unstructured":"Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Holford TR, et al. Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Results of the third national acute spinal cord injury randomized controlled trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. JAMA. 1997;277(20):1597\u2013604.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"26","key":"4005_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2992","DOI":"10.1097\/01.brs.0000250273.28483.5c","volume":"31","author":"S Tsutsumi","year":"2006","unstructured":"Tsutsumi S, Ueta T, Shiba K, et al. Effects of the Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study of high-dose methylprednisolone therapy on acute cervical spinal cord injury-results in spinal injuries center. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2006;31(26):2992\u20136 (discussion 2997).","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"issue":"20","key":"4005_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2121","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0b013e3181b613c7","volume":"34","author":"Y Ito","year":"2009","unstructured":"Ito Y, Sugimoto Y, Tomioka M, et al. Does high dose methylprednisolone sodium succinate really improve neurological status in patient with acute cervical cord injury?: a prospective study about neurological recovery and early complications. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(20):2121\u20134.","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"issue":"21","key":"4005_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1674","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2015.3963","volume":"32","author":"N Evaniew","year":"2015","unstructured":"Evaniew N, Noonan VK, Fallah N, et al. Methylprednisolone for the treatment of patients with acute spinal cord injuries: a propensity score-matched cohort study from a Canadian Multi-Center Spinal Cord Injury Registry. J Neurotrauma. 2015;32(21):1674\u201383.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-200102150-00020","volume":"26","author":"T Matsumoto","year":"2001","unstructured":"Matsumoto T, Tamaki T, Kawakami M, et al. Early complications of high-dose methylprednisolone sodium succinate treatment in the follow-up of acute cervical spinal cord injury. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2001;26(4):426\u201330.","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-199410000-00009","volume":"37","author":"MR Prendergast","year":"1994","unstructured":"Prendergast MR, Saxe JM, Ledgerwood AM, et al. Massive steroids do not reduce the zone of injury after penetrating spinal cord injury. J Trauma. 1994;37(4):576\u20139 (discussion 579-80).","journal-title":"J Trauma"},{"issue":"7","key":"4005_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2007.12.005","volume":"39","author":"B Suberviola","year":"2008","unstructured":"Suberviola B, Gonzalez-Castro A, Llorca J, et al. Early complications of high-dose methylprednisolone in acute spinal cord injury patients. Injury. 2008;39(7):748\u201352.","journal-title":"Injury"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1097\/01.brs.0000253964.10701.00","volume":"32","author":"BG Leypold","year":"2007","unstructured":"Leypold BG, Flanders AE, Schwartz ED, et al. The impact of methylprednisolone on lesion severity following spinal cord injury. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2007;32(3):373\u20138 (discussion 379-81).","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"issue":"2","key":"4005_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.sc.3100962","volume":"38","author":"V Pointillart","year":"2000","unstructured":"Pointillart V, Petitjean ME, Wiart L, et al. Pharmacological therapy of spinal cord injury during the acute phase. Spinal Cord. 2000;38(2):71\u20136.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"4005_CR39","volume":"2011","author":"S Carelli","year":"2011","unstructured":"Carelli S, Marfia G, Di Giulio AM, et al. Erythropoietin: recent developments in the treatment of spinal cord injury. Neurol Res Int. 2011;2011:453179.","journal-title":"Neurol Res Int"},{"issue":"219","key":"4005_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2012.05.041","volume":"6","author":"G Cerri","year":"2012","unstructured":"Cerri G, Montagna M, Madaschi L, et al. Erythropoietin effect on sensorimotor recovery after contusive spinal cord injury: an electrophysiological study in rats. Neuroscience. 2012;6(219):290\u2013301.","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"issue":"14","key":"4005_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9450","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.142287899","volume":"99","author":"A Gorio","year":"2002","unstructured":"Gorio A, Gokmen N, Erbayraktar S, et al. Recombinant human erythropoietin counteracts secondary injury and markedly enhances neurological recovery from experimental spinal cord trauma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99(14):9450\u20135.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"45","key":"4005_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16379","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0508479102","volume":"102","author":"A Gorio","year":"2005","unstructured":"Gorio A, Madaschi L, Di Stefano B, et al. Methylprednisolone neutralizes the beneficial effects of erythropoietin in experimental spinal cord injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102(45):16379\u201384.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0b013e31823b0440","volume":"37","author":"JS Lee","year":"2012","unstructured":"Lee JS, Yang CC, Kuo YM, et al. Delayed granulocyte colony-stimulating factor treatment promotes functional recovery in rats with severe contusive spinal cord injury. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(1):10\u20137.","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nurt.2008.10.041","volume":"6","author":"AL Siren","year":"2009","unstructured":"Siren AL, Fasshauer T, Bartels C, et al. Therapeutic potential of erythropoietin and its structural or functional variants in the nervous system. Neurotherapeutics. 2009;6(1):108\u201327.","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-014-9000-6","volume":"53","author":"H Zhao","year":"2016","unstructured":"Zhao H, Cheng L, Du X, et al. Transplantation of cerebral dopamine neurotrophic factor transducted bmscs in contusion spinal cord injury of rats: promotion of nerve regeneration by alleviating neuroinflammation. Mol Neurobiol. 2016;53(1):187\u201399.","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR46","first-page":"275","volume":"52","author":"E Alibai","year":"2014","unstructured":"Alibai E, Zand F, Rahimi A, et al. Erythropoietin plus methylprednisolone or methylprednisolone in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury: a preliminary report. Acta Med Iran. 2014;52(4):275\u20139.","journal-title":"Acta Med Iran"},{"issue":"9","key":"4005_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-015-2182-5","volume":"36","author":"DD Costa","year":"2015","unstructured":"Costa DD, Beghi E, Carignano P, et al. Tolerability and efficacy of erythropoietin (EPO) treatment in traumatic spinal cord injury: a preliminary randomized comparative trial vs. methylprednisolone (MP). Neurol Sci. 2015;36(9):1567\u201374.","journal-title":"Neurol Sci"},{"issue":"10","key":"4005_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2202-10-126","volume":"6","author":"N Matsukawa","year":"2009","unstructured":"Matsukawa N, Yasuhara T, Hara K, et al. Therapeutic targets and limits of minocycline neuroprotection in experimental ischemic stroke. BMC Neurosci. 2009;6(10):126.","journal-title":"BMC Neurosci"},{"issue":"12","key":"4005_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1001\/archneurol.2010.191","volume":"67","author":"JM Plane","year":"2010","unstructured":"Plane JM, Shen Y, Pleasure DE, et al. Prospects for minocycline neuroprotection. Arch Neurol. 2010;67(12):1442\u20138.","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"issue":"12","key":"4005_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(04)00937-8","volume":"3","author":"VW Yong","year":"2004","unstructured":"Yong VW, Wells J, Giuliani F, et al. The promise of minocycline in neurology. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3(12):744\u201351.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"issue":"Pt 4","key":"4005_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aws072","volume":"135","author":"S Casha","year":"2012","unstructured":"Casha S, Zygun D, McGowan MD, et al. Results of a phase II placebo-controlled randomized trial of minocycline in acute spinal cord injury. Brain. 2012;135(Pt 4):1224\u201336.","journal-title":"Brain"},{"issue":"5","key":"4005_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2011.1765","volume":"28","author":"MG Fehlings","year":"2011","unstructured":"Fehlings MG, Theodore N, Harrop J, et al. A phase I\/IIa clinical trial of a recombinant Rho protein antagonist in acute spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma. 2011;28(5):787\u201396.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"5350","key":"4005_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1126\/science.279.5350.509","volume":"279","author":"A Hall","year":"1998","unstructured":"Hall A. Rho GTPases and the actin cytoskeleton. Science. 1998;279(5350):509\u201314.","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"15","key":"4005_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6570","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-15-06570.2002","volume":"22","author":"P Dergham","year":"2002","unstructured":"Dergham P, Ellezam B, Essagian C, et al. Rho signaling pathway targeted to promote spinal cord repair. J Neurosci. 2002;22(15):6570\u20137.","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"issue":"2","key":"4005_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.200301080","volume":"162","author":"CI Dubreuil","year":"2003","unstructured":"Dubreuil CI, Winton MJ, McKerracher L. Rho activation patterns after spinal cord injury and the role of activated Rho in apoptosis in the central nervous system. J Cell Biol. 2003;162(2):233\u201343.","journal-title":"J Cell Biol"},{"issue":"9","key":"4005_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2017.5434","volume":"35","author":"MG Fehlings","year":"2018","unstructured":"Fehlings MG, Kim KD, Aarabi B, et al. Rho inhibitor VX-210 in acute traumatic subaxial cervical spinal cord injury: design of the spinal cord injury rho inhibition investigation (SPRING) clinical trial. J Neurotrauma. 2018;35(9):1049\u201356.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.7400117","volume":"5","author":"T Madura","year":"2004","unstructured":"Madura T, Yamashita T, Kubo T, et al. Activation of Rho in the injured axons following spinal cord injury. EMBO Rep. 2004;5(4):412\u20137.","journal-title":"EMBO Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2013.4684","volume":"71","author":"R Watzlawick","year":"2014","unstructured":"Watzlawick R, Sena ES, Dirnagl U, et al. Effect and reporting bias of RhoA\/ROCK-blockade intervention on locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2014;71(1):91\u20139.","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"issue":"15","key":"4005_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2065","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2020.7096","volume":"38","author":"MG Fehlings","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fehlings MG, Chen Y, Aarabi B, et al. A randomized controlled trial of local delivery of a rho inhibitor (VX-210) in patients with acute traumatic cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma. 2021;38(15):2065\u201372.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"4005_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2025.1574763","volume":"19","author":"X Chen","year":"2025","unstructured":"Chen X, Huang R, Yang Z, et al. Biological engineering approaches for modulating the pathological microenvironment and promoting axonal regeneration after spinal cord injury. Front Neurosci. 2025;19:1574763.","journal-title":"Front Neurosci"},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"4005_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2005.07.029","volume":"520","author":"N Lambeng","year":"2005","unstructured":"Lambeng N, Gillard M, Vertongen P, et al. Characterization of [(3)H]ucb 30889 binding to synaptic vesicle protein 2A in the rat spinal cord. Eur J Pharmacol. 2005;520(1\u20133):70\u20136.","journal-title":"Eur J Pharmacol"},{"issue":"26","key":"4005_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9861","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0308208101","volume":"101","author":"BA Lynch","year":"2004","unstructured":"Lynch BA, Lambeng N, Nocka K, et al. The synaptic vesicle protein SV2A is the binding site for the antiepileptic drug levetiracetam. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(26):9861\u20136.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"10","key":"4005_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1861","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2006.01132.x","volume":"48","author":"XF Yang","year":"2007","unstructured":"Yang XF, Weisenfeld A, Rothman SM. Prolonged exposure to levetiracetam reveals a presynaptic effect on neurotransmission. Epilepsia. 2007;48(10):1861\u20139.","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR64","first-page":"35","volume":"19","author":"ED Dunteman","year":"2005","unstructured":"Dunteman ED. Levetiracetam as an adjunctive analgesic in neoplastic plexopathies: case series and commentary. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2005;19(1):35\u201343.","journal-title":"J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother"},{"issue":"12","key":"4005_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1772","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.60.12.1772","volume":"60","author":"K Hawker","year":"2003","unstructured":"Hawker K, Frohman E, Racke M. Levetiracetam for phasic spasticity in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol. 2003;60(12):1772\u20134.","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1097\/00002508-200401000-00007","volume":"20","author":"MJ Price","year":"2004","unstructured":"Price MJ. Levetiracetam in the treatment of neuropathic pain: three case studies. Clin J Pain. 2004;20(1):33\u20136.","journal-title":"Clin J Pain"},{"issue":"6","key":"4005_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000079463.16377.07","volume":"61","author":"MC Rowbotham","year":"2003","unstructured":"Rowbotham MC, Manville NS, Ren J. Pilot tolerability and effectiveness study of levetiracetam for postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology. 2003;61(6):866\u20137.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"12","key":"4005_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2009.55","volume":"47","author":"NB Finnerup","year":"2009","unstructured":"Finnerup NB, Grydehoj J, Bing J, et al. Levetiracetam in spinal cord injury pain: a randomized controlled trial. Spinal Cord. 2009;47(12):861\u20137.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"4005_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-4614-9_17","volume":"71","author":"B Ceccarelli","year":"1976","unstructured":"Ceccarelli B, Aporti F, Finesso M. Effects of brain gangliosides on functional recovery in experimental regeneration and reinnervation. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1976;71:275\u201393.","journal-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol"},{"key":"4005_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00859","volume":"10","author":"PJ Magistretti","year":"2019","unstructured":"Magistretti PJ, Geisler FH, Schneider JS, et al. Gangliosides: treatment avenues in neurodegenerative disease. Front Neurol. 2019;10:859.","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"issue":"7","key":"4005_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2015.02.008","volume":"24","author":"J Zhang","year":"2015","unstructured":"Zhang J, Fang X, Zhou Y, et al. The possible damaged mechanism and the preventive effect of monosialotetrahexosylganglioside in a rat model of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2015;24(7):1471\u20138.","journal-title":"J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis"},{"issue":"26","key":"4005_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1829","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199106273242601","volume":"324","author":"FH Geisler","year":"1991","unstructured":"Geisler FH, Dorsey FC, Coleman WP. Recovery of motor function after spinal-cord injury\u2013a randomized, placebo-controlled trial with GM-1 ganglioside. N Engl J Med. 1991;324(26):1829\u201338.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"4005_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(02)37016-X","volume":"137","author":"G Schwartz","year":"2002","unstructured":"Schwartz G, Fehlings MG. Secondary injury mechanisms of spinal cord trauma: a novel therapeutic approach for the management of secondary pathophysiology with the sodium channel blocker riluzole. Prog Brain Res. 2002;137:177\u201390.","journal-title":"Prog Brain Res"},{"issue":"1 Suppl","key":"4005_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.3171\/2012.5.AOSPINE12116","volume":"17","author":"CH Tator","year":"2012","unstructured":"Tator CH, Hashimoto R, Raich A, et al. Translational potential of preclinical trials of neuroprotection through pharmacotherapy for spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg Spine. 2012;17(1 Suppl):157\u2013229.","journal-title":"J Neurosurg Spine"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2013.2969","volume":"31","author":"RG Grossman","year":"2014","unstructured":"Grossman RG, Fehlings MG, Frankowski RF, et al. A prospective, multicenter, phase I matched-comparison group trial of safety, pharmacokinetics, and preliminary efficacy of riluzole in patients with traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma. 2014;31(3):239\u201355.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jcbfm.9600033","volume":"25","author":"CL Gibson","year":"2005","unstructured":"Gibson CL, Bath PM, Murphy SP. G-CSF reduces infarct volume and improves functional outcome after transient focal cerebral ischemia in mice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2005;25(4):431\u20139.","journal-title":"J Cereb Blood Flow Metab"},{"issue":"5","key":"4005_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.563668","volume":"113","author":"H Kawada","year":"2006","unstructured":"Kawada H, Takizawa S, Takanashi T, et al. Administration of hematopoietic cytokines in the subacute phase after cerebral infarction is effective for functional recovery facilitating proliferation of intrinsic neural stem\/progenitor cells and transition of bone marrow-derived neuronal cells. Circulation. 2006;113(5):701\u201310.","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jcbfm.9600195","volume":"26","author":"M Komine-Kobayashi","year":"2006","unstructured":"Komine-Kobayashi M, Zhang N, Liu M, et al. Neuroprotective effect of recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in transient focal ischemia of mice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2006;26(3):402\u201313.","journal-title":"J Cereb Blood Flow Metab"},{"issue":"934","key":"4005_CR79","first-page":"204","volume":"105","author":"H Rea","year":"1992","unstructured":"Rea H, Garrett J, Kolbe J, et al. Baseline risk for asthma deaths. N Z Med J. 1992;105(934):204.","journal-title":"N Z Med J"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000057814.70180.17","volume":"34","author":"WR Schabitz","year":"2003","unstructured":"Schabitz WR, Kollmar R, Schwaninger M, et al. Neuroprotective effect of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor after focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke. 2003;34(3):745\u201351.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"issue":"12","key":"4005_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.4161\/cc.4.12.2213","volume":"4","author":"A Schneider","year":"2005","unstructured":"Schneider A, Kuhn HG, Schabitz WR. A role for G-CSF (granulocyte-colony stimulating factor) in the central nervous system. Cell Cycle. 2005;4(12):1753\u20137.","journal-title":"Cell Cycle"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000000121","volume":"39","author":"T Inada","year":"2014","unstructured":"Inada T, Takahashi H, Yamazaki M, et al. Multicenter prospective nonrandomized controlled clinical trial to prove neurotherapeutic effects of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor for acute spinal cord injury: analyses of follow-up cases after at least 1 year. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2014;39(3):213\u20139.","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"issue":"5","key":"4005_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-014-3373-0","volume":"24","author":"K Kamiya","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kamiya K, Koda M, Furuya T, et al. Neuroprotective therapy with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in acute spinal cord injury: a comparison with high-dose methylprednisolone as a historical control. Eur Spine J. 2015;24(5):963\u20137.","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"issue":"12","key":"4005_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2580","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-012-2213-3","volume":"21","author":"H Takahashi","year":"2012","unstructured":"Takahashi H, Yamazaki M, Okawa A, et al. Neuroprotective therapy using granulocyte colony-stimulating factor for acute spinal cord injury: a phase I\/IIa clinical trial. Eur Spine J. 2012;21(12):2580\u20137.","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"issue":"11","key":"4005_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2332","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.21372","volume":"85","author":"K Kitamura","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kitamura K, Iwanami A, Nakamura M, et al. Hepatocyte growth factor promotes endogenous repair and functional recovery after spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res. 2007;85(11):2332\u201342.","journal-title":"J Neurosci Res"},{"issue":"5","key":"4005_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20051054","volume":"20","author":"K Kitamura","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kitamura K, Nagoshi N, Tsuji O, et al. Application of hepatocyte growth factor for acute spinal cord injury: the road from basic studies to human treatment. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(5):1054.","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"issue":"23","key":"4005_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20236078","volume":"20","author":"K Yamane","year":"2019","unstructured":"Yamane K, Misawa H, Takigawa T, et al. Multipotent neurotrophic effects of hepatocyte growth factor in spinal cord injury. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(23):6078.","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines2040275","volume":"2","author":"K Matsumoto","year":"2014","unstructured":"Matsumoto K, Funakoshi H, Takahashi H, et al. HGF-met pathway in regeneration and drug discovery. Biomedicines. 2014;2(4):275\u2013300.","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"key":"4005_CR89","first-page":"195","volume":"24","author":"T Nakamura","year":"1994","unstructured":"Nakamura T. Hepatocyte growth factor as mitogen, motogen and morphogen, and its roles in organ regeneration. Princess Takamatsu Symp. 1994;24:195\u2013213.","journal-title":"Princess Takamatsu Symp"},{"issue":"5","key":"4005_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1093\/jb\/mvv027","volume":"157","author":"K Sakai","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sakai K, Aoki S, Matsumoto K. Hepatocyte growth factor and Met in drug discovery. J Biochem. 2015;157(5):271\u201384.","journal-title":"J Biochem"},{"issue":"3","key":"4005_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.20263","volume":"78","author":"I Date","year":"2004","unstructured":"Date I, Takagi N, Takagi K, et al. Hepatocyte growth factor improved learning and memory dysfunction of microsphere-embolized rats. J Neurosci Res. 2004;78(3):442\u201353.","journal-title":"J Neurosci Res"},{"issue":"10","key":"4005_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.22373","volume":"88","author":"J Shang","year":"2010","unstructured":"Shang J, Deguchi K, Yamashita T, et al. Antiapoptotic and antiautophagic effects of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and hepatocyte growth factor after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. J Neurosci Res. 2010;88(10):2197\u2013206.","journal-title":"J Neurosci Res"},{"issue":"11","key":"4005_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1248\/yakushi.127.1813","volume":"127","author":"S Takeo","year":"2007","unstructured":"Takeo S, Takagi N, Takagi K. [Ischemic brain injury and hepatocyte growth factor]. Yakugaku Zasshi. 2007;127(11):1813\u201323.","journal-title":"Yakugaku Zasshi"},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1179\/016164101101198659","volume":"23","author":"N Tsuzuki","year":"2001","unstructured":"Tsuzuki N, Miyazawa T, Matsumoto K, et al. Hepatocyte growth factor reduces the infarct volume after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Neurol Res. 2001;23(4):417\u201324.","journal-title":"Neurol Res"},{"issue":"11","key":"4005_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0027706","volume":"6","author":"K Kitamura","year":"2011","unstructured":"Kitamura K, Fujiyoshi K, Yamane J, et al. Human hepatocyte growth factor promotes functional recovery in primates after spinal cord injury. PLoS ONE. 2011;6(11):e27706.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-19316-y","volume":"8","author":"K Yamane","year":"2018","unstructured":"Yamane K, Mazaki T, Shiozaki Y, et al. Collagen-binding hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) alone or with a gelatin- furfurylamine hydrogel enhances functional recovery in mice after spinal cord injury. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):917.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"15","key":"4005_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1752","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2019.6854","volume":"37","author":"N Nagoshi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nagoshi N, Tsuji O, Kitamura K, et al. Phase I\/II study of intrathecal administration of recombinant human hepatocyte growth factor in patients with acute spinal cord injury: a double-blind, randomized clinical trial of safety and efficacy. J Neurotrauma. 2020;37(15):1752\u20138.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"10","key":"4005_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2004.21.1355","volume":"21","author":"A Ackery","year":"2004","unstructured":"Ackery A, Tator C, Krassioukov A. A global perspective on spinal cord injury epidemiology. J Neurotrauma. 2004;21(10):1355\u201370.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"9304","key":"4005_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)07603-1","volume":"359","author":"JW McDonald","year":"2002","unstructured":"McDonald JW, Sadowsky C. Spinal-cord injury. Lancet. 2002;359(9304):417\u201325.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"4","key":"4005_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3639.1995.tb00619.x","volume":"5","author":"CH Tator","year":"1995","unstructured":"Tator CH. Update on the pathophysiology and pathology of acute spinal cord injury. Brain Pathol. 1995;5(4):407\u201313.","journal-title":"Brain Pathol"},{"key":"4005_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xnsj.2022.100184","volume":"13","author":"M Kawai","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kawai M, Nagoshi N, Okano H, et al. A review of regenerative therapy for spinal cord injury using human iPS cells. North American Spine Society Journal (NASSJ). 2023;13:100184.","journal-title":"North American Spine Society Journal (NASSJ)"},{"issue":"4419","key":"4005_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1126\/science.386513","volume":"206","author":"FA Schanne","year":"1979","unstructured":"Schanne FA, Kane AB, Young EE, et al. Calcium dependence of toxic cell death: a final common pathway. Science. 1979;206(4419):700\u20132.","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-4886(03)00361-3","volume":"184","author":"M Nakamura","year":"2003","unstructured":"Nakamura M, Houghtling RA, MacArthur L, et al. Differences in cytokine gene expression profile between acute and secondary injury in adult rat spinal cord. Exp Neurol. 2003;184(1):313\u201325.","journal-title":"Exp Neurol"},{"issue":"10","key":"4005_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2016.1207532","volume":"16","author":"A Ulndreaj","year":"2016","unstructured":"Ulndreaj A, Chio JC, Ahuja CS, et al. Modulating the immune response in spinal cord injury. Expert Rev Neurother. 2016;16(10):1127\u20139.","journal-title":"Expert Rev Neurother"},{"issue":"7","key":"4005_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14072203","volume":"14","author":"A Montoto-Marques","year":"2025","unstructured":"Montoto-Marques A, Benito-Penalva J, Ferreiro-Velasco ME, et al. Advances and new therapies in traumatic spinal cord injury. J Clin Med. 2025;14(7):2203.","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"4005_CR106","unstructured":"Sheikh-Akbarizadeh E, Asghari A, Abedi Cham-Heydari G, et al. Chitosan-mediated metformin delivery promotes dose-dependent functional recovery in a rat spinal cord injury model. Iran J Vet Surg. 2025:27\u201334."},{"issue":"2","key":"4005_CR107","first-page":"151","volume":"20","author":"F Afroozi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Afroozi F, Asghari A, Abedi G, et al. Functional recovery in spinal cord-injured rats treated with melatonin-chitosan hydrogel: a behavioral study. Iran J Vet Surg. 2025;20(2):151\u20138.","journal-title":"Iran J Vet Surg"},{"issue":"2","key":"4005_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10020500","volume":"10","author":"EJ Panther","year":"2022","unstructured":"Panther EJ, Dodd W, Clark A, et al. Gastrointestinal microbiome and neurologic injury. Biomedicines. 2022;10(2):500.","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"key":"4005_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2025.108968","volume":"255","author":"N Zameni","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zameni N, Khoshnoodi M, Lucke-Wold B, et al. The impact of tracheostomy timing on the outcomes of patients with acute traumatic spinal cord injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2025;255:108968.","journal-title":"Clin Neurol Neurosurg"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01477-6","volume":"8","author":"X Hu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hu X, Xu W, Ren Y, et al. Spinal cord injury: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic interventions. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023;8(1):245.","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther"},{"issue":"1","key":"4005_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3171\/2018.9.SPINE18682","volume":"30","author":"JH Badhiwala","year":"2019","unstructured":"Badhiwala JH, Ahuja CS, Fehlings MG. Time is spine: a review of translational advances in spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg Spine. 2019;30(1):1\u201318.","journal-title":"J Neurosurg Spine"}],"container-title":["European Journal of Medical Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40001-026-04005-8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40001-026-04005-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40001-026-04005-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T19:02:29Z","timestamp":1775761349000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s40001-026-04005-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"references-count":111,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4005"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40001-026-04005-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["2047-783X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2047-783X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"22 September 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 March 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. For this type of study, informed consent is not required.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"521"}}